TRAVELS 



i if 



ICELAND: 



PERFORMED 



BY ORDER OF HIS DANISH MAJESTY, 



CONTAINING 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE 
INHABITANTS, A DESCRIPTION OF THE LAKES, RIVERS, 
GLACIERS, HOT-SPRINGS, AND VOLCANOES; OF THE 
VARIOUS KINDS OF EARTHS, STONES, FOSSILS, AND 
PETRIFACTIONS; AS WELL AS OF THE ANIMALS, IN- 
SECTS, FISHES, &C. 



BY 

Messrs. OLJFSEN % POFELSEN. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE DANISH. 



LONDON: 

PRINTED FOR RICHARD PHILLIPS, 6, BRIDGE-STREET, 
BLACK FRIARS, 
By Barnard ft Sirftzer, Water Lane, Fleet Street* 



1805. 



By transfei 
APR 6 1915 



PREFACE. 



XI IS Danish Majesty being particularly 
anxious to acquire a proper knowledge of 
Iceland, one of the most interesting parts 
of his dominions, lately directed the Aca- 
demy of Sciences to employ proper persons 
to travel over that Island, relative to which 
only vague and imperfect ideas had hitherto 
prevailed. Messrs. Olafsest and Povelsek 
were in consequence chosen for this undertak- 
ing; the former being a native of Iceland, and 
the latter resident there in the quality of first 
physician. These two learned men, by the ala- 
crity and pleasure with which they performed 
their task, succeeded in collecting the most 
complete information on every subject, and 
have gratified the world with a full and au- 
thentic account of the civil and natural 
history of that island. 

From their own observations, with the assist- 
ance of the manuscripts of other learned men, 
the present work was prepared for the press, 
under the auspices of the King of Denmark 
and the Academy before-mentioned ; and hence 
no fact of the smallest interest relative to that 
region, is now unknown. 

a 2 



iv 



PREFACE. 



The authors, in arranging their materials, di- 
vided the country into Quarters, Districts, and 
Jurisdictions; and of each portion of these they 
enter into separate details. The editor, in his 
translation, shall adhere to the same plan ; and 
he has no doubt, that the variety of intelligence 
thus afforded in a small compass, of which 
every sentence may be said to contain a fact, 
will be found more agreeable to his readers, 
than the uniformity which would prevail in 
such a work, if divided into a series of chap- 
ters. 

The English Translation will be illustrated 
with a map of the Island, and with copies of 
the principal engravings contained in the ori- 
ginal work. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 



SOUTHERN QUARTER. 



DISTRICT OF KIOSAR. 

In the month of July, 1800, Messrs. Olafsen and Povelsen set 
off from Copenhagen and arrived at Laugernes, in the district of 
Goldbringue : they thence passed into that of Kiosar, but being 
desirous of entering the northern quarter before the approach of 
winter, by crossing the mountain of Kioei, they at first went 
through a very small portion of this southern district. They 
how T ever returned thither in the following year, and concluded 
their vast undertaking by completing their observations on the 
southern part of Iceland. 

OF THE DISTRICT OF KIOSAR, ITS MOUNTAINS, &C 

This district forms a tongue of land which passes into the great 
Farafiordour, between the glacier of Reykenes and that at the 
western extremity, which from its situation is called Waster 
Jceckel. This tongue of land extends as far as the sea, and at its 
southern extremity are the isles of Thernoe and Loundoe, the 
latter of which only is inhabited. The principal and highest 
mountain in this country, is that of Esian, to the north of 
which appears that of Rheinevalle-Halsen, with a file of others 
detached and of a smaller size. 

ERUPTIONS OF MOUNTAINS AND GLACIERS. 

From the situation of this country, it is often threatened and 
damaged by disruptions of the mountains, which generally 
happen after heavy rains in summer ; but principally when these- 
occur in spring and autumn, they undermine and detach from the 
mountains enormous masses of rock, which only adhere to them 
by a small portion of cemented gravel or mould. The inha- 
bitants are also much exposed in winter by the rapid fall of vast 
conglomerations of snow, which are formed on the glaciers. 
When these heaps accumulate on the summits of the mountayis, 
they appear like arches above the vallies_, into which they are at 
length precipitated by their own weight. From the ancient and 



6 



OLAFSEN AND FOVELSEN's 



modern chronicles of this country, we leam of many periods when 
men and cattle have been destroyed by such accidents. One 
instance, in particular, is worthy of mention; as M. Jonsen, a 
learned man of extraordinary merit, lost his life on the occasion. 
This event occurred in February, 1699* and overwhelmed a whole 
presbytery with ail its inhabitants and cattle. 

NATURE OF THE MOUNTAINS. 

The mountains of Iceland should be divided into two kinds, 
ordinary and extraordinary, in order that the one class may be 
distinguished from the other ; though it is only from their ex- 
ternal appearance, that they are intitled to this distinction. By 
the ordinary, we mean the primordial or most ancient mountains 
of the country, which appear to be formed by from twenty to 
forty strata or beds of rock cemented on each other. The 
extraordinary ones, on the contrary, consist of rocks intermixed, 
as it were, by chance, and cemented together by gravel and 
strong hillocks of earth ; hence it will not admit of a doubt, 
that they have been formed by volcanoes. Some of them are 
red, others black, and a few of a white colour: the red and 
black are composed of lava and pumice-stone, while the 
white, on the other hand, consist of gravel and of white or 
greyish clay. In some of these white mountains may be ob- 
served the effects of a boiling water. The extraordinary kinds 
may be subdivided into ancient and modern ; among the former 
of which are all the glaciers. With respect to their height, 
the greatest are from 400 or 500 fathoms, to 1000 and upwards. 
Those of a second rate are about 300 and the smallest 100 
fathoms in height. We measured them with the astrolabe, and 
others have done the same with the barometer. 

OF THE MOUNTAINS OF KIOSAR. 

The Kiosar, from which this district takes its name, and 
several others in the vicinity, belong to the highest or primordial 
class, as being the most ancient; they, however, consist of only 
a small number of rocky strata, accumulated without order; 
and their summits are composed of long masses of rock of a 
deep grey colour, presenting an almost perpendicular facade, 
while their bases are concealed by the eruptions that have 
taken place. 

DIVISION OF THE INHABITED PART. 

The mountains of the district of Eios are intersected by 
beautiful valiies and plains, which contain three dioceses and a 
number of churches. It is watered by several rivers and rivulets- 
abounding with fish ; but of these rivers the Helleraa and the 
Laxaa are the principal. There are likewise numerous lakes 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



7 



of fresh water, containing plenty of trout. The principal lake 
is the Medalfells-Vata, in the diocese of Kim, and from this 
is formed lie Laxaa: it surpasses all the others in grandeur and 
utility ; and affords throughout the year a quantity of trout of 
a most excellent flavour. The springs and rivulets yield abun- 
dance of very limpid water throughout the whole country ; but it 
is rather of a styptic quality, probably, in consequence of the 
ferruginous earths through which it filtrates. The in- 
habitants, however, do not experience the least inconvenience 
from this circumstance. In the eastern part of the first diocese 
called Mosfell-Sweit, are some hot mineral springs, the water 
of which is light, limpid, and tasteless ; while its degree of heat 
will admit of the immersion of the hand without scalding. One 
remarkable effect of this water merits attention. The pebbles 
over which it runs in the open air, are covered by it with a 
thin white incrustation, on which aquafortis will not act. 

OF THE AIR. AND TEMPERATURE. 

Although the frost in this country is not very severe, the air 
is sensibly affected by the saline vapours, conveyed from the 
sea by the W. S. W. and N. W. winds ; hence the inhabitants 
complain of extreme cold, though the thermometer is only at 
zero; while, on the other hand, it does not affect them, when 
with the N. and N. E. winds, the thermometer is at its lowest 
degree. It is also remarkable, that the cattle left in winter in 
the fields, are much more sensible of the W. than of the N. E. 
winds. To the saline vapours may also be attributed the frequent 
rains that fall in the vallies, while it snows in the mountains. It 
also often happens, that rain falls in the canton of Kios, while 
the environs are perfectly dry. This undoubtedly arises from 
the clouds breaking against the mountains that surround the 
plains. 

OF THE HEAT AND COLD. 

In winter the cold is not very severe ; for, from various ob-* 
nervations with Fahrenheit's thermometer, it is ascertained, that 
the extreme degree does not pass beyond 24 or 20, except when 
the sky is very serene ; at which time the mercury falls to 12> 
and sometimes even into the bowl. The greatest degrees of cold 
prevail in January, February, aud March. 

PERNICIOUS WINDS OF SPRING. 

In April and May there occurred strong easterly winds which 
are very cold ; and when they are of long continuance, they 
weaken the cattle to such a degree, that they often die. They 
also dry up the ground so as to prevent the grass and plants 
from shooting in the ensuing summer. 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



OF THE HEAT OF THIS CLIMATE. 

As the cold of whiter is of long duration, the heat of summer 
is subject to variations. It has been remarked that at the end 
of June, w ater was frozen in the night, though on the preceding 
day the thermometer was at 70°. It is generally, when exposed 
to the open air, at 80 and 90° ; but it does not remain long at 
these points. Mr. Childrey, in his " Natural Rarities of Mid- 
dlesex/' as well as other writers, assert, that the greatest heat 
of the air in summer is between one and two in the afternoon ; 
but their observations will not apply to this district, nor, generally 
speaking, to the whole climate of Iceland. It has often been 
observed, that the mercury, which continued to rise till noon, 
afterwards fell; and it is known, that the slightest change in the 
air or even a simple gust of wind is sufficient to produce a va- 
riation in the heat. 

WEIGHT OF THE AIR. 

This is very unequal and various ; the difference that has been 
remarked in the barometer between its highest ascent and lowest 
fall, has been only two inches. In the space of five years it 
was only once observed at two inches and three quarters. Our 
travellers state, that they twice witnessed very sudden and alto- 
gether singular changes in the barometer, 

METEORS. 

It rarely thunders in these countries^ and then mostly in winter : 
the other extraordinary meteors are even less frequent. When 
the winds blow strong, the air is heavy and large flakes of snow 
fall, a faint light is perceptible in the lower atmosphere ; but it 
speedily disappears. There is also a kind of will o 7 the wisp, 
that follows persons in the fields; but it seldom occurs in this 
country; though scarcely a night passes without an aurora 
borealis of innumerable colours which make the most beautiful 
appearance, 

OF THE MTSTOUR, 

When the atmosphere is suddenly overcast beyond the moun- 
tains to the east of Mosfell-Sweit and becomes brown and black, 
it is an indication of an approaching storm from the E. or S. E. 
The wind succeeds in about one or two hours after the above- 
mentioned appearance, and this obscurity lasts from a day to a 
day and a half : the inhabitants call the phenomenon Mistour. 
The impetuosity of the wind speedily carries beyond the ex- 
tremity of the diocese, the cloud of dust that obscured the air ; 
and as soon as it is perceived by the sailors, they begin to take 
their precautions. This phenomenon occurs every time that ?i 



TRAVELS T N ICELAND. 



9 



strong wind blows from the glaciers of the eastern quarter 
towards Rangvalle, and the deserts that surround Mount Hecla; 
because there rises in the air a column of pulverised pumice- 
stone, sand, and dust, which is conveyed by it beyond the 
western provinces, as far as Mosfell-Sweit, which distance is 
equal to two Danish miles. 

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOIL. 

We find here as elsewhere, that common kind of black or 
deep-brown soil, generally called garden-mould; hence grass 
and plants vegetate on the surface in every spot, where the 
soil is susceptible of fertility. This mould is tolerably elastic, 
but its strata are seldom more than a Danish foot in thickness, 
except in the vicinity of the houses, where it is annually manured. 
Nearly half of the district in question consists of marshy ground, 
in which are strata consisting of reddish mixture of sand and 
clay from three to six inches thick ; beneath this is a stagnant 
mud, composed of plants that have rotted and a feruginbus 
ochre ; the latter is very elastic, moist and full of stones, and 
its layers are generally three or four feet thick. 

of turf (Humus bituminostts). 

Beneath this swampy or putrid soil, is found a bituminous 
earth, which the inhabitants call Mor or forf, its layers are 
from six to eight feet deep. It is dug up with a kind of spade, 
and being cut into cubes and dried, is used as fuel. 

This bituminous earth is here of great advantage as well as 
in the whole southern part of the island ; because it is a sub- 
stitute for wood. In digging it they meet with branches of 
trees, and sometimes even with lumps of wood of a considerable 
size; and the places where this bitumen is found, were, ac- 
cording to the accounts of the ancient historians, once covered 
with forests. Many naturalists assert, that this turf is repro- 
duced, even after its whole stratum has been carried away; and 
the Norwegians are of the same opinion. The ashes of tins 
turf are generally of a red colour. 

At low water, there is also obtained on the shore at Kialarnes 
another kind of turf, which the inhabitants call Sio ; it burns 
well, but sparkles and emits a sulphureous smell. It is likewise 
remarkable, that this turf contains Branches of trees, which 
proves, that the place where it is found was formerly a part of 
the land, on which the sea has encroached. Beneath these 
turfs, is a stratum of soft and swampy mould, and alter it come 
masses of rocks. 

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STONES. 

The most common kind of stone, of which the mountains of 
this vicinity are formed, is composed of a cemented sand, mixed 

OLAFSEN.] B 



10 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



with particles of spath. The holes and fissures of this stone 
are filled with quarz, amongst which may be perceived small 
hexagonal and rock crystals. On being submitted to fire., the 
results are not equal., but vary according to the masses of spath 
and other incombustible matter it contains. 

There is a stone, which the Icelanders call Hraun, or melted 
stone, from its having been expelled from the bowels of 
the earth by volcanic ebullitions. In some places, this stone 
is collected into considerable rocks; it is of the same origin 
as the lava of Italy, and may be classed with what Linnaeus calls 
concreted dementi ignei, though differing from the pumice. 
On traversing the shore in search of shells, our travellers on 
their journey to Loundoe made the extraordinary discovery of 
a bed of this lava, rive or six feet thick, and which seems to 
form the base of that island. Hence they at first thought that 
subterraneous fires had acted only in this canton ; but they w r ere 
afterwards convinced, that they have prevailed throughout the 
south of Iceland, 

The principal minerals found here, are vitriol, iron, and 
sulphur. 

OF THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. 

The district of Kiosar produces such an abundance of grass, 
that each peasant is enabled to keep during winter six or eight 
cows and from forty to fifty sheep; but from the small pro- 
fit they derive from their cattle in the course of the year, 
it must be concluded, that they are only half-fed, or that the 
grass is of a very inferior quality to that of the northern and 
western parts of Iceland ; since the peasantry of those quar- 
ters acquire full as much advantage from their cattle without 
giving them half the food they receive in the south. 

There are amongst this people a series of laws connected 
with agriculture, which comprise the tarifs of the country, besides 
different statutes relative to commerce : the people implicitly 
submit to them, though they neither emanated from, nor are 
sanctioned by, the King. The following is an instance of their 
nature; a cow is not saleable, unless she give in summer 
two pots of milk in twelve hours, and then, she is only consi- 
dered as an inferior animal ; because a good cow is expected 
to yield from six to ten pots even in winter, provided she be 
well fed. It has, however, been observed, that in the district 
of which we are speaking, the cows seldom give more than two 
pots of milk, and few of them produce more than four, however 
well they may be kept. 

The bad quality of the grasses and hay may be attributed to 
several causes. The grass in general has not so much sap, and 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 



11 



is consequently not of so good a kind as elsewhere : the cattle 
eat it with avidity , and fatten on it almost perceptibly, but they 
lose their strength ; which happens, as experience has proved, in 
every part of Iceland, where the soil produces a quantity of 
horse tail. It is well known that this plant is vulnerary and 
astringent. There is a law which enjoins the inclosure of 
all pasturages and meadows, which has existed for three centu- 
ries, but now is no longer adhered to. The people merely set 
a child to watch their cattle, and who is not able to prevent them 
from entering the meadows. The superficial stratum of the soil 
gradually dries by the sea-winds ; and the snow does not suffici- 
ently cover the ground in winter ; for though it sometimes falls 
in great quantities, it is soon melted and absorbed by the thick 
vapours from the sea. And lastly, their manure, at present, is 
of little use. Many of these inconveniencies might be re- 
medied by rendering the soil heavier by manure ; and if, every 
time an excavation is formed in the ground, care were taken to 
fill it with turf or fatty 7 matter, to prevent it from becoming larger 
by the action of wind and rain. The principal cause of the bad 
quality of the fodder is, doubtless, the little precaution used at 
the time of hay-harvest, as the hay is seldom dry when they stack 
it, by which it frequently heats and takes fire ; the stacks also 
being much longer than in most countries, sink in the middle, 
and form a reservoir for rain, which deprives the hay of its best 
qualities. It is, however, worthy of remark, that, on advancing 
towards the mountains, the land is richer, and the grass and 
plants possess a more nutritive quality ; indeed our travellers, 
when proceeding along the ridge of Keller-Heide, were surprised 
at the beauty of the surrounding country, which produced abun- 
dance of excellent grass and Hieracium or W iid Sorrel. 

PLANTS. 

The principal plants found in this district, and most of which 
serve as food for cattle, are the following : Equiseta ; Humex ace- 
tosa; Taraxacum; Hieracium; Ranunculus acris; LapathmnjG- 
His oblongis crispatis; Thlaspi bursa pastoris ; Caltha palmtris ; 
Carex Linnei, pinguicula ; Menianthes, trifolium jibrinum ; 
Comarum palustre ; Alchymilla alpina; Spirea ulmaria ; Ga~ 
Hum luteum; Galium boreale ; Trifolium pratense, Jiore albo ; 
Potentilla argentea ; Statice armeria; Anthyllis yulneraria ; 
Plant ago maritima. Linn. Foliis Unearibifs $ Planiago foliis 
punctatis ; Cochlearia; Rodiola rosea ; Qucubalus Be/ten al- 
buna; Sedum vermicular c ; Urttca urens ; A kla j mill a -tulga- 
ris ; Geranium mohtanum ; Saxifraga auiumnalh, Jiore iuttj ; 
JAclien Islandicus : Fuel mar ini. 

B 2 . 



12 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



OF THE INHABITANTS,, THE PREVAILING DISEASES, SvC. 

The inhabitants of this district are robust and well-made ; but 
it is difficult to find any with that ruddiness of complexion 
which is a general indication of good health ; on the con- 
trary, they mostly have a wan look, because they are continually 
fishing up to the middle in the sea, and often exposed to the rain 
and wind. It has been remarked, that the people in the interior 
of the country have a much better appearance than those who 
live near the sea-shore. 

On the whole, however, they enjoy a good state of health till 
the age of fifty, when they begin to lose their strength. The 
following are the most common diseases to which they are sub- 
ject : catarrhal fevers are very prevalent, but more so in the in- 
terior than along the shores, probably from the circumstance, 
that the inhabitants throw off their clothes during and after the 
bay-season, and thereby expose themselves to colds. The fevers 
are accompanied with a cough and expectoration ; and it has 
been observed, that this expectoration is not the same with 
young as with old people : the former only throw up phlegm, 
while the letter expectorate a more viscid substance. Pleurisies 
are also commonly accompanied with inflammatory fevers, 
constipation, and pains in all the limbs • and thsse diseases 
often becomes epidemic. Diarrhaeas are very common; par- 
ticularly in Spring; towards the coast, in consequence of the 
introduction of great quantities of fish and other fat aliment, 
after a scarcity of other provisions. Our travellers found, in 
this district, only two children affected with the Carcinoma in- 
fantum ; white in that of Goldbringue, they are almost all sub- 
ject to it from the second month to the third year of their age. 
The inhabitants of this country are frequently afEicted with con- 
tractions of the lower belly ; the women are subject to obstruc- 
tions of the menses ; and the hypochondriacal affection is very ge- 
neral ; but the inhabitants not knowing how to define it, give it 
a name which answers the idea of a disease in the breast. 

The inhabitants of the district of Kiosar are indolent, taciturn, 
and insensible to every thing which does not relate to their pri- 
vate interest. 

OF THEIR HOUSES, IiVCLOSURES, &C. &C. 

The worst houses are in the southern part of the island, which 
being inhabited principally by fishermen, contains nothing but 
miserable huts. It is, doubtless, from this circumstance, that 
Anderson, and other travellers, have given so unfavourable an 
account of the houses of the Icelanders. Those who have tra- 
velled through this country with a view to observation, must ad* 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



13 



mit that the houses of these people do not appear to strangers 
so singular as they have been described : they are built upon a line 
of ground covered with verdure, which every where gives them 
the appearance of their being situated in the country ; their 
fronts are whitened, or sometimes painted red. The part 
of the street that runs in front of the houses is paved with 
flags or flat stones, on which you can w 7 alk with dry feet, how- 
ever dirty may be the road beyond them. The Icelanders have 
adopted a manner of building very suitable to their country ; 
they are more secure from cold than in apartments surrounded 
by brick-walls. The houses, at the same time that they better 
resist the intemperance of the seasons, are more secure than 
other kinds against earthquakes ; for there have been numerous 
instances, in which very violent shocks have not damaged any one 
of them, while every person walking in the open country has 
been thrown down. The present manner of building, however, 
in Iceland, is not so solid as that which prevailed about two cen- 
turies ago ; the ancient art of building is forgotten, while the 
timber of the present day is too bad and scarce. It would 
be an improvement to their houses if they were not to ap- 
ply their covering of turf in a moist state immediately upon the 
wood-work, but to place between them a thick layer of dry 
moss or hay ; besides this, their present wails are too thin, 
though there are some houses that have existed upwards of a cen- 
tury, as may be ascertained by the difference in their structure, 
and it would be well, if the art of building adopted by their 
ancestors were restored. 

MANNER OF LIVING AMONG THE ICELANDERS. 

It is remarkable, that even the people of Iceland are emulous 
to imitate strangers in the luxuries of life, and splendour of the 
table ; but it must not be supposed, that the peasant of the pre- 
sent day follows, in every respect, the same kind of life as his 
ancestors. He has adopted many foreign articles ; but the ma- 
jority have retained the custom of eating liquid food at the end 
of their meals. 

The Iceland peasant takes three meals a day ; he breakfasts 
at seven in the morning, dmes at two in the afternoon, and sups 
at nine in the evening. His breakfast consists in summer of 
coagulated milk, the whey of which is expressed, and the curd 
diluted with skim or fresh milk. In winter the common dinner 
is dry fish, and afterwards the same kind of milk-soup as has 
been just described, with the addition of cheese and bread, or 
cake. They give the name of cake to a kind of biscuits, 
^nade of flour, about three lines in thickness^ and a foot hi 



14 



OLAFSEN AND FOVELSEN's 



diameter. They are dressed by exposing them to the fire on a 
flag-stone, and they will keep for a long time. 

On Sundays they have a few dishes extraordinary ; such as 
gruel made from barley or buck-wheat boiled in milk, or 
porrige, composed of milk and flour. Fat soup, meat stewed 
in skim milk, and eaten with different sauces ; to which may 
be added a variety of other ragouts, customary in the coun- 
try. On the grand festivals of Christmas and Easter, they would 
think themselves lost, if they did not all have smoked meat, 
which they dress on the preceding evening. The peasant is not 
much in the habit of salting his meat, but prefers pressing it, to 
expel the superfluous juice ; he then leaves it for a couple of 
days, that the remainder of the juice may dry up, and afterwards 
hangs it in the chimney, eight or ten feet above the hearth. 
Some travellers have asserted, that meat prepared in this way is 
liable to spoil, but they are mistaken : it on the contrary keeps 
better than that which is smoked in other northern countries, and 
which is known by the name of Hamburgh beef. At Christmas 
each family kills a fat sheep, which is eaten with a sauce com- 
posed of milk gruel. The peasant never roasts his meat, but 
always eats it with this kind of broth, when inclined to regale 
himself. Besides the above-mentioned festivals, there are other 
days devoted to feasting. After the harvest they consume in each 
family what is called the fat lamb, or a sheep, if they have no 
lamb. On Shrove Tuesday they are obliged to give their work- 
men and servants as much smoked meat as they choose to take ; 
on the next day meat is forbidden till Easter ; and during this 
time they even avoid pronouncing its name. On Shrove-tide 
evening they make a joke of tampering and inciting each other to 
pronounce the word meat, because any person who says it loses 
his portion on the following day. This abstinence appears to be 
one of the remains of Catholicism. On the first summer's day, 
which commonly falls on a Thursday, between the 18th and 25th 
of April, they are obliged to regale all their people with fresh, and, 
to them, delicate food, such as sausages, smoked mutton, fish^ 
and fresh butter. 

In the parishes that are distant from the sea, they have various 
other dishes, of which milk forms the basis, the difference of 
which our travellers did not fail to observe, in their way through 
the districts and cantons. It should be added, that some of the 
peasantry are in very easy circumstances, and procure many fo- 
reign luxuries ; but the poor inhabitants are proportionately nu- 
merous, and indeed the great majority are obliged to subsist 
upon what their own country affords. 

With respect to vegetables, Iceland in general is very poor. 
A royal ordinance of 1749 enjoined all the inhabitants to culti- 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 15 

vate cabbages : but it required much trouble to make them dis- 
cover the advantages of such culture. Those of the district of 
Kiosar were the most obstinate in this respect, and the admini- 
stration was obliged to compel them to raise this useful article. 

The inhabitants in easy circumstances almost all use salt-butter, 
while the peasantry and poor people eat in winter what is 
called sour butter, and in summer the fresh or unsalted sub- 
stance. 

Olaus Magnus says, that the Icelanders once had a great 
trade in salt butter ; but the experience of three centuries causes 
us to doubt this assertion, which is not supported by those au- 
thors who have written on the ancient history of these people, 
though they have entered into many details on their economy. 

Whatever care may be taken in Iceland in salting butter, and 
whatever may be its quality, it is not possible to preserve it good 
beyond a year ; and it does not appear that there is any method 
of effecting this purpose : but the case is different with acid or 
sour butter. When care is taken to churn and wash this butter, 
it may be preserved for twenty years and upwards, without losing 
either its goodness or its first acidity. At the time the Catholic 
Religion prevailed here, there were large magazines attached to 
every bishopric, which served as store-houses for this butter ; 
and in years of scarcity it was distributed to all who wanted 
it, though principally to such of the peasantry as were vassals of 
the bishop. These magazines existed even for some time after 
the Reformation. 

A circumstance that gives more certainty to the preservation 
of sour butter is, that it is well known that it does not readily 
spoil, particularly in cold countries, provided it does not contain 
any of the milk, or other matters susceptible of fermentation. 
It acquires acidity after remaining for six months, and becoming* 
gradually white : as soon as one is accustomed to it, the taste is 
agreeable, and it is very salutary, particularly in winter. On 
eating it with dried fish, which forms a constant meal in this 
country, you feel, as mastication proceeds, a gentle heat expand- 
ed through all parts of the body ; and, by this action, it facili- 
tates much better than salt butter, that insensible transpiration, 
so necessary for the preservation of health. 

The Icelanders in general, however, do not make much use of 
butter before it is sour, because it becomes yellow and mouldy, by 
the formation of lanuginous flowers (Flores lanuginis), proceed- 
ing, doubtless, from the essential salts that cause fermentation 
with the solid and aqueous parts. In this change, heat undoubtedly 
produces a great effect, by giving rise to a very subtile and acrid 
salt ; but as soon as all the parts are well amalgamated, the butter 
may be preserved without alteration for a great number of years : 



16 



QLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



the poor people would not change this butter for the best 
salt kind in the world. It is worthy of observation,, that they 
here make butter equally as well from the milk of sheep, as 
from that of cows, either by mixing the cream, or by keeping it 
separate. When made only of sheep-milk, the butter is whiter, 
and sooner turns acid. They are, however, too much in the 
habit of putting salt to the butter when in a state of fermenta- 
tion, by which, in a short time, it acquires a disagreeable taste, 
and finally becomes so bad, as to be useless : it is this kind of 
butter that they export. When the sour butter is too old, it loses 
in its acidity and weight, dries up, and acquires a rancid taste. 
If melted when in this state, it does not give more than half its 
ordinary portion of oil. 

OF STEEPED OR MACERATED FISH. 

The peasants, and even persons of respectability, never eat 
the cod-fish m its fresh state, but dress it only when it has at- 
tained a certain degree of putrefaction. The Icelanders are not 
the only people amongst whom this custom prevails, as it is fol- 
lowed by several of the Northern tribes who inhabit the coast. 
They adopt the same method with other fish of large kinds, whose 
flesh is tough, but principally with the Gadus lined laterali ni- 
gra, and with the large common thorn-back, (Ray a vulgaris 
maxima) which they consider as unwholesome and disgusting 
when fresh, on account of their long and hard filaments : they, 
however, eat, as soon as caught, the small species of fish, such 
as trout, soles, and others of a delicate flavour. It is only the 
two above-mentioned kinds that they hang on poles in their drying- 
room, which is a hut impermeable to the rays of the sun ; by 
this process, the fish acquires a bitterish taste. After hanging a 
fortnight, three weeks, or even longer, if the weather be not too hot, 
the fish attains a very alkaline smell ; and the muscles and fila- 
ments are then soft and digestible ; if, on the contrary, the fish be 
exposed beyond the proper time, it becomes corrupt, the muscles 
separate, and it is no longer eatable. From this statement we 
may know how far the accounts of travellers are to be relied on, 
w hich state, that the Icelanders live upon stinking fish ; on the 
contrary, it is only the largest kind of cod-fish, that they steep, 
in order to cause the fermentation of the nauseous and indigestible 
juices which they contain in their fresh state. It might even be 
asked, whether it would not be inimical to health to eat these 
fish soon after being caught ; and this might give rise to another 
question, why, for example, in the greater part of Europe, they 
do not eat game till it has been kept, and acquired a strong taste. 
We think, that the conduct of the Icelanders, with respect to 
their fish, is the same as that of other people in keeping game, 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



17 



since the fermentation of the natural and superfluous juices is 
performed in the same manner in game, whether quadruped or 
volatile, as in fish, 

OF THEIR BEER AND OTHER FERMENTED LIQUORS. 

The Icelanders brew a tolerably good beer, but they do not 
make a daily use of it ; their ordinary drink being skim or butter- 
milk, to which they add a little water after it has acquired a cer- 
tain degree of acidity and strength. By the old laws of the coun- 
try they are compelled to form another drink from water and a 
twelfth part of si/re, which is an excellent kind of butter-milk or 
whey, that has been kept for some time. The fermentation of 
their wheys takes place slowly, in consequence of which the top 
is covered with a skum, while the grosser particles fall to the 
bottom ; but these simple people do not know that this is ef- 
fected by the fermentation itself, though they often find, that 
the casks or other vessels, in which they preserve their whey, 
burst, when air is excluded from them. They use this same whey 
for pickling or preserving different articles ; but they likewise ex- 
perience, that when it has not arrived at perfection by fermenta- 
tion, the objects immersed in it spoil, though, when it is good^ 
they acquire a nice taste, and will keep for upwards of a year. 

OF SWEET MILK. 

When the Icelanders receive company they present their guests, 
as well as strangers who visit them, a draught of milk : this is 
also their regaling drink on the days of their grand festivals ; and 
they mostly use it without boiling : it forms the principal food 
of their children, when at an early age, and they give it to their 
sick, to whom it is very palatable. A tun of skimmed milk 
costs twelve aln, or two marks six schillings, of Danish money. 

OF THE LABOURS AND HABITUAL OCCUPATIONS OF 
THE ICELAND PEASANTRY. 

The men are employee^ during a part of the winter, in the 
manufacture of woollen cloths, or in spinning and making 
worsted stockings and socks, which is, nevertheless, a particular 
occupation of the women. The inhabitants of Kialarnes are 
employed in fishing, throughout the year, unless taken off by 
temporary avocations. 

In the spring, all the men may be seen leaving Mosfell-Sweit 
and Kiosen, for the fishery at Seltiarnes-Naes, or still farther to 
the southward. The peasantry, who have no possessions of 
their own, and who consequently occupy a habitation and ground, 
which they rent from the Crown, are obliged to labour 
from Candlemas to Easter in the king's boats, or procure a 

OLAFSEN.] C 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN ? S 



substitute, to whom they pay a rix dollar or Danish crown. As 
soon as the ice is melted, they begin to work their peats, as 
already mentioned, putting them to dry, and heaping them in 
small squares. It is then left till autumn, when each person 
carries home his supply for the year : some of them houging it 
while others leave it in the open air, with the simple precaution 
of covering it as a security against rain. 

In spring and summer it is the employment of the women 
and children to watch and attend upon the cattle, but in winter 
this task devolves on the men. As soon as the thawed waters 
have run off, they begin to clear the meadows with forks, or a 
kind of rake, carrying off the straw and other substances, that 
have been drifted by the wind, or conveyed by the water, and 
which would prevent the shooting of the grass. They then lay 
on a little dry manure, which on the first rainy day they spread 
over the ground. The peasants of Mosfell-Sweit generally 
leave to the women all household affairs and attention to the 
land till autumn, in which interval they are engaged entirely in 
fishing. Those, however, whose station is at no great distance 
from their houses, contrive to return every Saturday evening, 
and go back again every Sunday afternoon. 

OF THE HAY-HARVEST. 

Tins harvest is commenced as soon as the grass has acquired 
its full height, and most of the plants run to seed, which gene- 
rally happens about the middle of July ; though in some years 
the' season is earlier or later, according to the weather. The 
scythe used by the Icelanders is a Danish ell long by two inches 
broad ; the blade is fixed by means of a leather string to a handle, 
from one to three ells long, and forming a right angle with the 
blade. The Icelanders raise the blade of their scythe to sharpen 
it much oftener than is customary in most European nations ; 
and the stones used for this purpose are imported by the Iceland 
Commercial Company. The workmen, at least once a day, sub- 
mit the blade to the fire, in order to thin it, when hot, with the 
hammer. According to the laws already mentioned, a mower, 
who is not very expert, is supposed to be able to cut about thirty 
square fathoms per day, provided the ground be flat and level. 
When the grass is cut, it is the task of the women to make it 
into hay, and collect it in cocks to dry. If they are surprized by 
rain in this season, they speedily heap up the hay in small oval stacks, 
with their ends towards the wind ; these are generally four or five 
feet high, by one or two in breadth, and eight or ten in length. 
As soon as the hay is well dried, it is carried home and stacked, 
ff the farm-houses be not very distant from the meadows, 
tliey make the hay into large trusses, which are carried home 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 



1% 



by men ; otherwise they are conveyed by horses, each of which 
bears two similar bundles, one slung on each side : There is 
an ancient assize ; according to which a kapall of good well- 
dried hay costs 20 lispfound, 20 &ln, or one Danish crown, 
in spring a kapall of hay fetches thrice the sum it costs imme- 
diately after the hay-harvest : the reason why these two bundles 
of hay do not yield much is, because the hay has neither fer- 
mented nor been pressed. For a kapall of hay, weighing about 190 
lb. there are paid in summer 8, and in spring 16 lispfound. 
When hay is scarce, the price increases accordingly ; and even 40 
lispfound are paid for €0u0 weight of hay. In prosperous years, 
it is calculated that the quantity of fodder, requisite to support 
a cow, amounts to 10 ozre, or two Danish rix-dollars. After 
the hay is thrown up into heaps, trodden, covered, and laden 
with stones, in order to press it down, the Iceland pea- 
sants measure their stock by the fathom, and calculate accord- 
ingly the number of cows for which they have provender. They 
reckon in general one square fathom for a cow ; varying the cal-^ 
dilation, however, according to the quality of the hay and the 
size of the cattle ; and in some districts upwards of a fathom is al- 
lotted to each cow. The hay, collected on the downs and rich 
soils, is termed tada ; and that obtained from meadows and marshes 
is denominated outhey or field-hay. The last sort is excellent for 
horses and sheep ; while a mixture of the tada with a little of 
the outhey is preferred for milch kine. The harvest does not 
finish till September. There are stated periods in the Iceland 
Calendar, for its commencement and termination : it is there said 
that it should not begin till the 13th, and at latest on the 20th, 
of July ; and that it ought to be concluded by Michaelmas or 
the end of September. The duration of the harvest is di- 
vided into two periods, the first of which finishes some days after 
the feast of St. John the Baptist. 

The chief autumnal business of the countryman is, to collect 
the sheep that abound on the hills, when he selects such as 
are to be killed for the supply of his family. His next occupa- 
tion is to procure turfs to cover his house and shelter ium from 
the raiil and snow of winter. These turfs are different from 
those which the Icelanders employ for fuel : on each side of a 
packsaddle they place a kind of barrows, of a peculiar shape, on 
which they load their building-turfs ; each of which are nine feet 
in length by three in breadth, The other autumnal labours are, 
to build their houses and repair such as require reparation ; to get 
in their turf for fuel ; and manure the downs, after the gru^ lias 
been made into hay. 

There is a regulation, fixing the task which a stout lad ought 
to perforin in one day^ according to the nature of his work, 

C 2 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



This subject has been already noticed,, when speaking of cutting 
the grass for hay : in like manner, a man employed in cutting turf, 
ought to cut and stack, in the course of his day, ?00 green turfs, 
with an assistant, who piles them up accordingly ; or 900 other 
turfs without such aid. A girl is required, in her day's labour, to 
collect and dry the hay which has been cut by three men ; and in 
winter, when she is employed in weaving, she is obliged to furnish 
weekly either 0,5 ells, or 5 ells per day, of Vadmel, a coarse 
woollen stuff, with which most of their clothes are made. A 
man must exert all his strength^ in order to accomplish the task 
imposed on him for his daily labour. Wages are very moderate ; 
though somewhat higher, in the southern part, as they have 
not been fixed there by the laws of the country. A do-< 
mestic, who is a good labourer, gains annually no more than 
four rix-dollars; and a female-servant only half" that sum, 
A day-labourer, who hires himself to a farmer for the harvest, 
gets 8 rix-dollars ; and, if he is employed throughout the sum- 
mer in these laborious tasks, he earns ten fish, or a mark of 
the Empire, equivalent to about 10 schillings per day. Several 
years have elapsed since this last assize has been followed in the 
southern part of Iceland : and all the ancient and modern regular 
tions on this subject prove that the Icelanders think it contrary to 
the public good, and disadvantageous to every individual, to fix 
too high the value of a day's labour. Various acts of the go- 
vernment have enacted that the wages of a stout hearty youth, 
obliged to do all the work of husbandry, whether abroad or at 
home, shall (exclusive of board) be 8 ells of Vadmel, and 
ten oere, or two rix dollars ; together making somewhat 
more than three rix-dollars. If, however, a man-servant pos-? 
sess any other talents, for instance, those of making household 
utensils, whether of wood or iron, he shall be allowed twelve 
ells of vadmel, and four rix-dollars in money. The wages of a 
good house-maid, capable of undertaking every thing connected 
with the family, and who is also skilled in working wool, are fixed 
at 5 ells of vadmel, and the remainder in money ; amounting in 
the whole to two rix-dollars annually. 

It was formerly the practice for an opulent countryman, who 
was not a vassal, always to reward the long and faithful service* 
of a man or woman whom he had hired, by giving them at 
their marriage, furniture, utensils, and a sufficient quantity of 
tools to enable them to begin the world. A cow and some, 
sheep, or at least a calf and some lambs, w ere sometimes added. 
This hope of reward was a great encouragement to industry 
and fidelity ; but that practice has gradually fallen into disuse j 
and in the l6th century it had nearly become obsolete. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



NATURAL INDUSTRY OF THE ICELANDERS. 

Although the Icelanders cannot procure instruction, like other 
nations, in the various trades, yet nature lias conferred on some 
of them sufficient address and genius, to instruct themselves in 
the manufacture of every sort of household-utensils, whether 
of copper, iron, wood, or any other material. They succeed 
well enough for the purposes for which they are intended; but 
we cannot expect them to be either so well, or so neatly made., 
as by our workmen, who have served a long apprenticeship- 
There are some of them, however, who have as much in- 
genuity as our best mechanics : and there is scarcely a parish, 
but has one of the Smidours, or men acquainted with every 
kind of handicraft. They work either in wood or metal, according 
as they are desired ; but they excel in wooden work, in building 
houses, in flooring or wainscoting rooms, as well as in manu- 
facturing every kind of utensils, both large and small ; in making 
scythes, constructing fishermen's boats tackle, besides many other 
similar works ; others excel in iron-work, such as small hatchets, 
saws, large augres, blades for planes, knives, scythes, nails, horse- 
shoes, locks, keys, traps, and other articles of this description- 
Others manufacture in copper and brass, various pieces of orna- 
ment, such as buttons, buckles, women's girdles, rings, the de- 
corations of saddles and harness, &c. Lastly, there are some, 
who work very neatly in silver : they make various decorations 
for females, partly polished, partly embossed and chased, buttons, 
sheaths, handles for knives, &c. &c. Although the inhabitants 
of the district of Kiosar have not much occasion for these articles 
of luxury, yet they have among them Smidours, who are every 
way capable of manufacturing them as well as the other things 
above-mentioned. There are, however, various articles of iron, 
sent by merchants to Iceland, such as large anvils, saws, hammers, 
shoes for horses, &c. They have a ready sale, because every 
thing is better wrought, and is sold at a lower price than what 
is made in the country; but it must be at the same time de- 
clared, that the articles manufactured by the Icelanders are far 
more solid than those which are imported. These people are 
likewise extremely expert in inventing traps, snares, and hooks, 
for catching foxes, sea-dogs, birds, and salmon. 

COMPUTATION OF TIME, OR ICELAND CALENDAR. 

The computation and division of time into years, and months, 
is of great antiquity among the Icelanders; though this knowledge 
has been acquired by them from other nations : at present we 
.shall only notice the manner adopted by the country people for 



g£ CLASSEN AND POVELSEN's 

dividing the day into hours. In the most remote ages, the 
course of the sun and the different regions of the horizon 
enabled men to discover a calculation of time. The first inha- 
bitants of Iceland divided the day into eight equal parts ; and 
gave the name of Dagsmaurk or signs of the day, to half parts 
pr intermediate points. It is worthy of remark, that they did 
not divide the horizon according to the four cardinal winds, 
but according to the wants of their economical life : Our tra- 
vellers made this observation throughout the upper part of the 
isle, where no one has yet thought of regulating, by means of a 
compass or sun-dial, the Dagsmaurk or signs of the day. The 
following is the division in question. They term the time when 
the sun is in the east, Midour-Morgeii, which is six o'clock 
with us, while among them it is only 5 or half past 5 in the 
morning; because we are an hour or an hour and a half earlier 
than they. Their Dag-maal is, when the sun is in the south- 
east, and is equal to nine o'clock in the morning with us, whereas 
it is only half-past seven with them. Gaadegue, or mid-day, 
when the sun is full south, or at noon, is according to their 
calculation only half past ten or eleven. We are ignorant 
what name they gave to the period of three o'clock, when the 
sim is in the south-west; and their Mitour-Artan designates 
sis o'clock in the evening, when the sun is in the west. These 
two periods perfectly correspond with ours; except their Natl- 
maa/y when the sun is in the north-west and it is nine o'clock 
with us, means with them only eight. Midnatla is their 
midnight, and Otta, three o'clock in the morning. This di- 
vision prevails along the coasts, especially where there are many 
parts frequented by strangers. There are even places where 
they have two Dag-maal and Gaadague ; because the inha- 
bitants, being informed by foreigners that their method of keeping 
time did not correspond with ours, have regulated these signs by 
a watch, or more frequently by a compass, though without re- 
garding the declination of the needle. 

The inhabitants of this district, and in general those residing 
on the coasts, calculate their hours of the day by the ebbing 
and flowing of the sea ; and particularly when a thick and con- 
densed atmosphere conceals the sun from them for several days. 
They also know that this ebbing and flowing does not correspond 
with the phases of the moon, as the highest and lowest tides 
do not take place for two days after the changes of that planet, 
and scarcely ever before. This natural irregularity they have 
denominated the Efter-Stroemme or latter flux, chiefly when 
it takes place after a considerable rise, which they distinguish 
by the name of Stor-Stroemme. They do not, however, guide 
themselves by this; for when they are several days without 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



seeing the sun, tliey work only for a few hours, and then only 
calculate them by guess, according to the rise and fall of the 
tide. 

The people who are dispersed over the interior, regulate their 
hours chiefly by the moon, the pleiades, ursa minor, and a few 
other stars ; especially in winter, when the nights are ex- 
tremely long. These good folks have in general but little 
acquaintance with astronomy, and know only a very little of 
the stars by their names ; though, from an ancient chrono- 
logical manuscript intitled Blanda, and written about the 13th 
century, it appears that the ancient Icelanders were better 
informed. 

SADDLES AND P ANN ELS OF HORSES. 

The inhabitants of this district, and of that of Goldbringue, 
are by no means fond of travelling : they rarely quit the district, 
and many of them have never gone even as far as its boundaries. 
Their ordinary routes are from their respective houses to church, 
whence they return home the same way. In frosty weather, 
both men and women go thither on foot; but when it thaws, 
they ride on horseback, as the roads are then scarcely passable: 
and, for this purpose only, almost every peasant has at least one 
horse in his stable. In summer every one rides, however small 
the distance may be. The Icelander makes no use of the saddle 
when he only rides into his fields, and does not travel far 
from home: he throws over the animal for the time only, a sort 
of woollen cushion ; which is about six feet in length, half a foot 
wide, and one inch and a half thick. He carefully folds it and 
fastens it with a girth. When he is going to church, he lays 
over this cushion a saddle, nearly of the same shape as ours, 
excepting that it is stouter. These saddles are covered with 
black leather, and ornamented with brass: when well made, 
they cost from. 4 to 5 rix-dollars; the stirrups, bridle, and 
crupper are decorated with the same metals, of which also the 
buckles and nails are made. The men's saddles have no breast- 
girth. Their saddles, and in general all their harness, are made 
of ox-leather ; the hides are prepared, by being well-stretched, 
in order to dry; when they are rubbed with fish-oil till they 
have imbibed the fluid, after which they are slightly but fre- 
quently beaten with a strong stick. Next, they are trampled 
under foot, till they become soft and pliant; and are finished 
by being blackened, or rather tinged of a red colour with the 
rust of iron, or bark of the birch-tree. Calf and sheep-skins 
are prepared nearly in the same manner. It is a pretty com- 
mon practice, when they are going only to church, for the men 



£4 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEnV 



to place their wives on a pillion behind them, with their 
face to the left ; that is to say, their right arm is round the back 
of the horseman. In other parts of the island, the women often 
ride singly, on a side-saddle, as may be seen in Denmark and 
elsewhere: but they are decorated very differently, being fre- 
quently covered with blue or green cloth, and embellished with 
brass plates on which are inlaid a variety of figures, such 
as lions, bears, and birds. From each side of the saddle hangs 
a square piece of cloth : the bridle, breast-girth, and the 
crupper, are richly ornamented with nails in the form of buttons, 
It is, however, only people in easy circumstances, who have 
such trappings ; for such a saddle, as we have now described, 
of the first quality made in the country, costs 20 rix-doHars. 
They are more rarely used in Kiosar, than in other parts of the 
island. 

When they go to a distance, for instance to the town, or to 
the places where there are commercial establishments, to purchase 
fish, or withersoever their business may call them, the Icelanders 
carry with them one or two pack-horses ; the saddles of which 
rest upon a green sward turf, and are fastened with three girths, 
which are in general made of horse-hair. On each side of the 
horse, these pack-saddles have three hooks in a line, on which 
the loads are fixed. 

AMUSEMENTS OF THE ICELANDERS. 

From the Northern historians we learn, that the ancient Ice- 
landers had several recreative games, and amusements, and which 
were enjoyed as much by the players as by the spectators. 
This, however, is not the case with the present inhabitants of 
the district of Kiosar, who have no taste for any sports ; for 
which they are truly to be pitied, especially in winter, when 
they have nothing to relieve them from the anxiety and trouble 
Inseparable from domestic cares. 

Of the ancient Icelandic games, none was more fashionable 
than the exercise of wrestling. In retaining the practice, the 
terms have also been preserved, which the champions gave to 
every motion they made ; and each of which has its peculiar 
name. This exercise blends the useful with the agreeable; for 
there is nothing which gives more agility and elasticity to the 
muscles. 

The smallest and apparently weakest men often everthrow is 
an instant those who are the largest and most robust; but this 
only arises from great practice and activity. In former times 
the most courageous men, and those of the first families in the 
country, took delight in this exercise; while at present the -young 
people only follow it as an amusement, particularly in parts 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 



2!5 



which contain an episcopal residence ; but some of them excel 
to such a degree; that they are famed throughout the country. 
At Kialarnes, where fishing is pursued throughout the year, they 
are much attached to this exercise, but particularly in the former 
season, when they cannot continue their occupation on account 
of the frost. Besides their common method, they have also a 
peculiar manner of wrestling, which consists in seizing the ad- 
versary "by the shoulders, and throwing him down. This me- 
thod, in which there is so little art, is doubtless that which was 
anciently most practised : it consists less in the agility of the 
limbs and motion of the body, than in the strength and move- 
ment of the head. It approaches near to that of the English, 
in which the inhabitants in the county of Cornwall are the 
greatest adepts. 

OF THEIU SAGAS AND HISTORICAL RECITATIONS, 

The most noble pastime was, undoubtedly, that pursued by 
the Icelanders before the first depopulation of this island, 
which was that of reading publicly their Gamla-Sagar, or the 
history of their country written in ,the Icelandic language, 
Before any persons seriously devoted themselves to writing 
history, it was usual to relate in societies certain adventures 
and other facts worthy of retention ; for this purpose, those 
were chosen who possessed the best information, together with 
oratorical talents : and they were generally found amongst the 
:bards, poets, or other persons of distinction. If, in a com- 
pany, any individual related a history with more precision and 
detail than others, he w as justly recompensed by the approba- 
tion and applause of the auditors. After this they transmitted 
the principal incidents to their posterity, by carving them on 
their doors, bedsteads, and pannels of their apartments. It was 
not till the thirteenth century, that the Icelanders seriously ap- 
plied themselves to the writing of the history of their own and 
other Northern countries ; they, however, retained the custom of 
reciting anecdotes and facts of different periods. Their history 
of King Hciguen the Old, is a proof of this statement, it being 
composed principally of such recitations at their meetings in 
the evening, that is to say, in the interval between the decline of 
day and total darkness ; for, as long as there was any light at all, 
they continued historical readings. They chose for their reader 
a young man of the house, of good elocution \ or they some- 
times gave preference to one of the guests w ho possessed similar 
talents. If the master of the house happened |q be fond of history, 
he procured a number of books for himself and his family, whn h 
he" read on the winter overlings to his $eig%o$rs and friend > 

O LAPS 1£N.] JD 



26 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



This kind of reading had the double advantage of relaxation and 
improvement; besides which, it tended to keep awake those who 
had business to perform in the evening. After the fourteenth 
century, the poets employed themselves in writing histories 
in verse, in order to render them agreeable: they recited 
them with a loud voice and a musical tone. 

OF THE ICELANDIC LANGUAGE. 

This language is spoken tolerably well in the district of Kiosar, 
and it would be wrong to suppose that the trivial change in the 
pronunciation of certain words forms a particular dialect ; though 
it is a fact, that the difference of the language in some cantons 
is very remarkable, as it is a perceptible mixture of the lan- 
guages of Denmark and Norway, which is proved by a variety 
of Danish words in their juridical acts and other legal writings ; 
though there are likewise many German, French, and Latin 
words, of which it is impossible that the people can understand 
one half. This corruption can only be attributed to that spirit 
of frivolity which induces most people to adopt foreign phrases 
in preference to their own ; or it may perhaps arise from neces- 
sity, as the Icelandic jurisprudence was introduced from Nor- 
way ; but, on the other hand, it may be seen, that those who 
pique themselves most on writing their language in its greatest 
purity, introduce a number of Latin and other words. The 
ancient Iceland idiom is daily losing ground; and though 
there is scarcely a corner of the island, in which the most il- 
literate peasant does not understand word for word, and listen 
with pleasure to the ancient sagas or histories. Yet is it to 
be feared, from the little use they make of it, that the language 
of Iceland may soon become extinct, which must be regretted, 
as it is one of the most ancient of the living tongues. 

OF THEIR GAMES. 

The inhabitants of this district, as well as those of the other 
parts of the island, play various games, in which they take no 
small interest. There are, however, few persons in this quarter 
who know them. They also play at draughts ; but in this game 
they have variations which are totally unknown to foreigners. 
They play at cards in various ways, particularly a game which 
appears to be lansquenet. It is remarkable, that though, as we 
have just observed, the Icelanders take much delight in their 
games,, they never either play for money or -any other thing; 
according, however, . to all appearance, this was not the case in 
former times, when there was much cash in the country ; and it 
was doubtless the abuses which then existed, which gave rise to 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



m 



certain decrees against gaming, principally in the eleventh and 
twelfth century. One of these states, that, whoever shall be 
found playing for money, or any thing else, shall be considered 
out of the protection of the law, so that any man may attack 
and arrest him. The decree pronounces the confiscation of 
goods for the same offence. 

OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 

We shall not here extend our remarks on the animal kingdom 
farther than will be necessary to give an idea of what relates 
to the economical life of the inhabitants of this district ; but we 
shall speak more at large on the subject, when treating of the 
other parts of the island. 

HORSES. 

There are but few horses in this district, where, however, 
they are more necessary than in the others. The inhabitants 
of the country of Kiosar employ them only in summer for their 
daily rides, in the vicinity of their habitations. They some- 
times also serve for statute-work, such as the conveyance of 
the bailiff of the canton to the place where the court of 
justice is held. All the carriage of goods and fish is performed 
by water. There are no studs in this district ; nor is there 
a single saddle-horse to be distinguished from those employed 
in daily labour. A well-formed mare, without any defects, 
costs three rix dollars, if above five, or under twelve, years 
of age ; but they are dearer in other quarters, where they are 
more employed and of a better kind. 

HORNED CATTLE. 

This district is tolerably abundant in horned cattle ; but they 
are not turned to so much advantage as in other parts. Some 
wild oxen are met with on the mountains, which all have owners, 
who mark them, in order to collect and draw them in at the time 
of harvest. 

A good milch-cow, eight years old, which has calved twice, 
costs 100 or 120 annex, about four rix-dollars, thirty aii/ies 
being equal to one dollar. An ox, three or four years old, costs 
as much as the cow just specified ; while an ox of eight years 
sells for 200 aun.es, or eight rix-doliars in specie. The price is 
not always the same; for in some years a milch-cow will fetch 
upwards of five rix-dollars. The oxen and cows are of various 
colours : they are mostly without horns ; and those with this or- 
nament have them very short. In former times they used ox- 
horns for goblets ; and then they employed a fatty composition 
for anointiug them at the root to increase their growth: they also 

d 2 



30 

% 5 • 



OLAFSEN AND POYELSENS 



a great part of the day in their agricultural labours. They like- 
•wise assert that the aquatic horse couples with the common 
mare, and that thence have proceeded certain horses in Iceland 
of so ticklish or delicate a disposition, that on making them enter 
the water up to their bellies, they rear and throw the rider, as 
well as any burden they may bear. 

It is, however, not probable, that the Icelanders, by the aquatic 
horse, mean the hippotamus which is found in the great rivers 
of Egypt and other parts of Africa. On the contrary, the latter 
differs in every respect from the description given to the former; 
and even supposing it to be the same, it might be asked, how 
it could exist in so cold a climate, and in lakes w here it could 
lind nothing to feed on. We may, therefore, presume, that 
the Nikour of the Icelanders is merely a serpent, or some other 
marine animal of a prodigious size, which may have been often 
observed in the lakes and rivers. 

| DOGS. 

In this part of Iceland, three species of dogs are particularly 
remarkable : the first of which is the sheep-dog, or, as Button 
calls it, the Iceland dog ; it has long hair, short and thick legs, sharp 
muzzle, and carries the tail curved and erect. It is of great ser- 
vice to the shepherd, having always an attentive eye over the 
Hocks ; and the moment it perceives a sheep to stray, it takes 
great pains to bring it back. There is another variety of sheep- 
dog, v.ith rough or frizzled hair, which is extremely adroit, and 
learns all sorts of tricks. The second species is the largest: it 
has smooth hair, is high upon its legs, and very similar to the 
common dog of Denmark ; it is trained to fox-hunting, and is 
very dextrous in unkenneling, pursuing, and killing this animal, 
The third species is nearly like that last-mentioned, only differing 
in the thickness of its tail. 

CATS. 

There is only one kind of cat in Iceland, which is the same as 
that of Denmark: it is naturally tame, and resides in the houses: 
though there are some which become wild by wandering in the 
fields, and take up their retreat among the rocky fragments that 
"fall from the mountains, where they prey upon sparrows and other 
small birds. It appears, that cat-skins once formed an article 
of commerce in Iceland, since they were taxed in the old tariffs 
at hah an wre y which is equivalent to ten Danish schillings. 

OF FOXES. 

There are two species of foxes in this country, the white 
(conisr lagopus), and brown (cauis vulpes). They destroy a 
number of lambs, and even attack sheep, by fixing on their 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



31 



wool, and letting them run off with the load, till the sheep, out 
of breath, falls down, when the fox tears open its throat, and 
sucks the blood, which it drinks with such delight and avidity, 
that it often becomes stupified, and drops as it were in a swoon. 
JBy this time an active shepherd generally comes up with it, and 
easily kills it, by blows on the head with stones. It often hap- 
pens that a fox, fixing to the wool, as above described, is, by a 
strong and vigorous sheep, carried off with such rapidity, as to 
become completely giddy, and infallibly to die. There is a re- 
ward of a rix-dollar allowed for those who succeed in destroying 
a litter of foxes ; and the anecdotes related by the people of this 
animal's cunning are innumerable. 

mouse (Mus Muscuhts). 
Iceland abounds too much in mice and rats, and yet there are 
some parts in which they are not to be seen ; for example, the 
present canton is absolutely free, both from mice and w T ood 
rats. 

sea-dog (Rocca). 
There may be seen in Iceland several species of sea-dogs, of 
which uo description have hitherto been given ; but in the dis- 
trict of Kiosar there are seldom found any other kinds than that 
known to all Europe, and which the Icelanders call Land-selo?i?\ 
Many naturalists, and particularly Pontopp, in his Natural His- 
tory of the North, boast much of the instinct and prudence of 
this animal : in this country, however, the people are ignorant 
of all the wonders related by so many writers on this subject, 
especially with what is said by Glaus Magnus, who asserts, that 
this animal is not afraid of the female sex, for which reason in 
England men dress themselves in women's clothes to catch it. 
Shildrey also, in his <f Bacon of Yorkshire," gives a number of 
wonderful anecdotes concerning this animal. In Iceland the sea- 
dog is seldom taken by the net, as they prefer shooting its, which 
renders it fearful, that it seldom breeds its young in the country. 
The people, notwithstanding, have a very ingenious and amusing 
manner of taking this animal ; which is, to construct little 
bridges or crafts, on which it gets to feed its young, and thus 
may be taken at any hour of the day. The Icelanders and Nor- 
wegians formerly derived great advantage from this method ; but 
as the greatest variety of the seal is to be found in the wes- 
tern and northern parts of Iceland, we shall say more about it, 
particularly of the manner in which it is hunted, when speaking 
&f those districts. 

OF BIRDS. 

The inhabitants of this country are deprived of a great advan- 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN ? S 



tage, since they have neither fowls, ducks, nor other poultry ; 
we, however, rprd in several of their historians, who are worthy 
of credit, that they formerly existed in the country, even at the 
time when ifoegan to be inhabited. The eagle ( Falco Chrysetus ) 
is very well known here, and may be met with throughout Ice- 
land : it makes great ravages amongst the flocks, by seizing upon 
all the lambs it can come near : the females of this bird may 
often be seen carrying ofT young sea-dogs, to feed their brood ; 
for which purpose they avail themselves of the time when they 
are sleeping about the rocks that hang over the sea. There 
is only one species of eagle here ; but the variety of colours 
which prevail in this bird, according to its age, has led many 
travellers into the error, that there are different species. This 
eagle sometimes remains in the interior of the country, where it 
feeds upon salmon and other fish, as well as upon wild ducks 
and small birds : at other times it may be seen on the rocks, 
devouring dead fish, or other carrion, that may be thrown ashore 
by the tide. 

the Iceland falcon ( Falco Islandicus). 
There is also but one species of falcon known in Iceland, 
which differs only in its size and colour ; this difference is in the 
female, being much longer than the male, while the grey, white, 
and corbeau-eoloiired birds are all of the same species. The 
hunting of the falcon is one of the most interesting sports of 
Iceland ; particularly as it brings to the country every year from 
2000 to 3000 rix-dollars. In the districts of Kiosar and Gold- 
bringue, this bird lays but seldom, which may be attributed to 
the falconers of the King of Denmark destroying such as are 
brought to them, when they find them too old or unfit for the 
chace ; or even when the plumage has not appeared to them suf- 
ficiently handsome, so that for several years together the people 
have not been able to supply them with birds, 

THE RAVEN, (CoVVUS Corax). 

The raven abounds throughout Iceland, and indeed is the most 
common bird there, being so tame, that it comes in winter close 
to the houses, in search of food. It only differs from the com- 
mon raven of Europe in being stronger, bolder, and more sub- 
tile, as it mixes amongst the domestic cats and dogs. This bird 
is, however, a great destroyer ; it falls upon fish, animals, and 
every thing it meets with, particularly in spring. At that season 
they may be seen watching the sheep that are about to cast their 
lambs ; and no sooner does the young one appear, than the ra- 
vens peck out its eyes ; and they will even attack the dams, un- 
less the latter are strong enough to oppose them. They also 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 



33 



watch the wild-duck when it lays, and driving it from its nest 
feed upon the eggs. Even horses are not secure from this car- 
nivorous bird ; for when they are in the pasture, the ravens 
search for such as have wounds, rowels, or withers, and, 
fixing themselves with avidity upon the animal, tear out large 
pieces of flesh, while the horse cannot rid himself of them, except 
by kicking in a violent manner, or falling on the ground. The 
inhabitants of the country are so well acquainted with the ar- 
tifices of this bird, that they are never deceived by them : when 
in the winter they see one coming at a great height in the atmo- 
sphere, or hear its cry, they are immediately on their guard to 
observe where it drops, and proceed to the spot to ascertain if 
it has fallen upon one of their horses or any of their flock that 
may have died. The people have a high opinion of this bird, 
and superstitiously believe, that it is not only informed of what 
passes at a distance, but even of future events ; that in particular 
it foreknows when any person in a family is about to die, 
because it comes and perches on the roof of the house, whence 
it proceeds to make a tour round the church-yard, uttering a 
continual cry, with singular and melodious variations in its voice. 
They have even attributed to one of their learned men the gift 
of understanding the language of the raven, and thus giving 
intelligence of the most occult circumstances; they assert in 
general, that the raven lays its eggs nine days before the summer 
solstice, which is nearly about the time prescribed by nature ; 
but they add, that if the winter frosts have not ceased, snow 
falls, or frost ensues after this period, the bird eats its own 
eggs and quits its nest, which is an indication of a very severe 
spring. But notwithstanding the high opinion the Icelanders 
entertain of these birds, they nevertheless attempt to destroy 
them entirely, or at least to diminish their number as much as 
possible, by making a general search for their nests, breaking the 
eggs, and killing the young wherever they find them. It is re- 
„ marked, that when the young ravens fall from the nest, and the 
parents are not able to get them back, they devour them. In 
severe winters a raven makes no scruple to eat up another, 
which has either been killed or has died naturally. 

When an eagle passes over a spot on which he is seen by the 
ravens, they immediately collect, follow him ; and as soon as he 
pitches, they surround him at a few paces distance in a circle, 
to derive advantage from his penetrating eye, which nothing 
escapes. If the eagle discover a dead horse or other carrion, 
he fixes on the middle of it, while the ravens arrange themselves 
around it, without, however, coming too near. It has been 
remarked, that the ravens seek their food in autumn in every 

OLAFSEN.] E 



34 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



direction, and mix together in the fields without discrimination, 
while, on the approach of winter, which is towards the end of 
October, they pass in couples or in troops of from six to ten 
or more near a farm, according to its extent or apparent po- 
pulation. If a strange raven, or one of another troop, has the 
misfortune to fall amongst them, they chase him in the most 
furious manner, and kill him if he cannot escape. 

WILD FOWL. 

There are several species of wild-fowl in Iceland; the people 
shoot them in winter, and in summer collect their eggs. 

The wild-duck (Anas mollissima ) is not very abundant in the 
districts of Kiosar and Goldbringue, in consequence of the havoc 
made by the gun, though the sport is in the spring forbidden 
by law. This bird is not of a delicate flavour, but its eggs are 
very good, and great use is made of its down. The swan {Anas 
tygnus) is very common in this country, where it passes the 
winter, and in^summer lives on lakes and rivers : when these are 
frozen, it proceeds to the sea-coast, and in the long and dark 
nights of winter this bird traverses the air in flocks, making it 
re-echo with its notes, which are very similar to, and rather 
higher, than the tones of a violin. One of the troop first begins, 
and is shortly followed by another, so that it would appear that 
they were answering or singing in parts. The country people 
are often awakened from their sound sleep by the notes of these 
birds; but they do not regret the disturbance, since, when the 
waters are frozen and the forests covered with snow, it prognos 
ticates a thaw, which invariably follows in two or three days. 

There are three different species, of the Pelican ( Pelicanus 
carbo ) in Iceland, which nevertheless live together and have the 
eame kind of walk. The following is the manner in which they 
are taken ; in winter, when breakers accompanied by cold winds 
drive towards the coast opposite to where the sea is bounded by 
rocks, the pelicans proceed thitherto find a shelter for the night; 
but the rocks being covered with hoar frost, are so slippery 
that they cannot stand on them, from which they endeavour to 
perch on the summits or to find some herbage, where they can 
test. The inhabitants who watch for this period, then cau- 
tiously advance., provided with nets, which they throw with 
success wherever a flock of Pelicans has alighted. The Ice- 
landers eat these birds, and many foreigners do the same, not- 
withstanding their fat is very strong, and their flesh has a fishy 
taste; the young birds, however, eat better, particularly if stript 
of their skin ; and it is even asserted, that after this operation 
fiiey are equal hi flavour to the turkey. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



£5 



FISH. 

Whales are rarely seen in the Gulph of Kolle, or at least 
they are only of the smallest species ; while in the Gulph of Ha- 
valfiord, which is five miles in length, by one in breadth, several 
kinds appear in spring, which are easily surrounded and driven 
on shore by pelting them with stones. The same takes place in 
the gulph of the western part of the island, where the inhabitants 
attack them in greater numbers. In the lakes of Heller and 
Kortolfetade, they take several kinds of salmon, which are to- 
lerably abundant, and come into low water on the breaking up 
of the ice. In some seasons the sea-dog makes great havoc 
amongst the salmon, by watching for them at the mouth of the 
river. 

BOATS OF THE FISHERMEN. 

At Kialarnes, fishing lasts all the year ; and the men employ 
boats or canoes, the largest of which only holds four persons, 
while the smallest will not contain more than one man; in the 
latter some risk is incurred, particularly in rough weather. 
These canoes are moved by the oar. 

From different traditions, it is evident that similar canoes were 
used here in the earliest ages, with the exception that they were 
then longer and deeper, and that they required two men to work 
them, one at the prow and the other at the poop, each man 
using two oars. The inhabitants of Kialarnes use for their 
canoes sails, made of very fine wollen stuff, woven in the man- 
ner of linen. The peasantry wear shirts of the same article. 
Their boats have but one sail, which is a fourth narrower at top 
than at bottom: the masts are not all of the same height, 
but the general proportion is two-thirds of the length of the 
boat. There are no other particulars worthy of notice, ex- 
cept that, instead of an anchor, they use a stone like those 
of a mill, perforated in the middle, to contain a stake, through 
which a rope is passed to let it into the water. 

Amongst the fish which they take, are the chub, the sole, and 
the thornback ; from the liver of which last they extract an 
excellent oil. In spring and autumn they catch small soles with 
hooks made for the purpose ; and it is remarkable, that this fish 
always comes near the shore, or at least within an eighth of a 
mile. 

SHELL-FISH. 

Of the different kinds of shell-fish found in the district of 
Kiosar, four are good to eat, two of which, being very scarce 
in other parts, we shall describe : the first is the Concha ven- 
tricosa bivahis, nec auricidata, which is obtained on the 

E 2 



36 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEls's 



ebbing of the tide on sand-banks ; but though this fish is eatable, 
they only use it as a bait. We attempted to convey a consi- 
derable number of these fish to Vedoe, to ascertain if they 
could be transplanted to other districts, but our efforts did not 
succeed. We observed that it did not open its shell, un- 
less attacked by different insects, that ate holes in its substance. 
Another remarkable circumstance was, that on hanging one of 
these shell-fish in an apartment that contained a fire, and which was 
at the same time exposed to the rays of the sun, we saw with 
surprise, that the fish continued alive for a fortnight, and only 
died when it had lost all its moisture, by which it fell into a 
state of putrefaction. In the western part of Iceland, the inha- 
bitants eat this fish, which though rather tough, has a tolerably 
good taste. 

Another shell-fish, which is very palatable and wholesome, 
though not used by the inhabitants, is the Concha testa bi- 
vaki oblonga, altera extremitate pramorsa, apertura paten- 
tissima, proboscide bretiori conacea : it abounds in the 
Havalfiord, where the shore is covered with its shells. 

INSECTS. 

There are very few insects on land; but the sea swarms 
with them. The Krabben is very common in this district, and 
is the same as is eaten in Denmark under a similar name: it 
is the common crab of Europe. The Icelanders are of opi] 
nion that it is good for nothing; but they are mistaken, for 
our travellers ate it several times, and found it remarkably 
good. 

The Lumbricus marinus, or sea-worm, is very common on the 
claey shores of Iceland, and is the same as is used in Norway and 
at Deal for bait. The Hasmatopus hunts after this insect, and 
easily pulls it out with its long beak, though the worm frequently 
retires on the approach of the enemy to a considerable 
depth. 

OF THE FORESTS. 

Several Icelandic historians assert, that the district of Kiosar 
was so covered with wood at the time it began to be peopled, 
that the new colonists were obliged to clear a considerable space 
to build on. There is no doubt, that the forests here were at 
one time vast and numerous. It is reported, that in the can- 
ton of Born, a valley on this side of the mountains, and which 
was formerly an extensive wood, several very large trees were cut 
for ship-building, and that the first vessel made from them, took 
in a cargo of them for Norway, at the very dock at which it 
was built. The trees alluded to were said to be birch; but 
there is no doubt that oaks were likewise amongst them. We 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



37 



shall speak in another part of the causes of devastation in the 
forests of Iceland. 

FARTHER REMARKS ON THE TURF OF ICELAND. 

The turf explored in this district, and which has been already 
spoken of, proves, that at one time there must have been many 
birch-trees in places where there is at present no appearance of 
wood. A great disruption of rocks, which took place some 
years ago at Esian, afforded an authentic proof that there was 
formerly a fine forest of birch-trees in this canton ; and which 
is recorded in one of the ancient Danish histories. We saw 
with surprize, in a space exposed by this uisruption, some 
fragments of birch, which shew that these trees must have been 
very large, much more so indeed than those in the forests of 
Housafall and Fnios Kadal, which are nevertheless the finest 
that exist in this country. 

OF THE LAKE OF HI VALVATN. 

The Hivalvatn is a lake of fresh water, which, according 
to tradition, takes its name from the carcase of a whale found 
there. But two well-informed persons assured us, that this 
said whale is nothing more than a rocky ridge covered w r ith 
moss. We shall therefore be very cautious how we place it 
amongst the vestiges of the deluge, which various persons say 
they have observed in different parts of our globe. 

How ever careful the Icelanders may have been to discover 
the remarkable events that have taken place in their country, 
and particularly the volcanic eruptions, there are still many 
which seem to have escaped them; though it is evident that 
they have occurred since the island has been inhabited. 
Amongst those which they have omitted, is the eruption that 
took place in 1.340, in the chain of mountains that extends 
towards the south of Mosfell-Bygden, which has certainly 
suffered considerable shocks from subterraneous fires: they 
have been partly calcined and even removed from their ancient 
site. The annalsof Iceland make no mention of this circum- 
stance. 

FARTHER INTERESTING DETAILS RELATIVE TO THE 
INHABITANTS OF THIS COUNTRY. 

There has existed from time immemorial, in the western part 
of Kialaraes, a house or kind of little manorial castle, near which 
are the ruins of a temple of idols. They are of opinion, that 
this temple was built about the year 888, in the time of Helge 
Biaela, the father of Ingolf, who was one of the first inha- 
bitants of Iceland. 



38 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



The manorial house, situated at the foot of the mountain of 
Esian, near Hof, belongs at present to the king. On observing 
that the first and finest idolatrous temple was built at Hof, 
and that the first bailiwick was established there, we must also 
lemark, that at the same time Orlyger Stopson erected the first 
church at Esiuberg ; he had been instructed in the Christian 
religion by St. Patrick, bishop of the southern isles ; and when 
Orlyger separated from him, he presented him with the mate- 
jials for building a church in Iceland. Knowing, however, 
that he could not find in Norway either priest or sacred or- 
naments, he made him a gift of consecrated ground for the 
support of the church, as well as of an iron bell, which gave 
lise to the following legend : It is said, that in the passage of 
the Gulph of Faxa it fell from the ship, but that by a kind of 
miracle it was thrown ashore in the environs of Esiuberg. 
Orlyger first landed at Patrick-Fiord, which is to the southward, 
and to which he gave its name in honour of the Bishop Patrick ; 
Ijut agreeably to the advice of this bishop, the church was de- 
dicated to St. Collombyle, who is doubtless the same priest 
known by the name of Colomban, an Icelander, who converted 
the Picts to the Christian religion in 562. The descendants of 
Orlyger, who inhabited Esiuberg a long time after him, likewise 
Became converts to Christianity, and considered Colomban as 
their tutelary saint. 

CAVERN OF BAARD. 

Most of the Icelanders look upon the cavern of Baard as a 
wonderful monument of antiquity ; they relate that the giant or 
clemi-god Baardour Snagfellsaas resided in it, and had meetings 
with other giants; but there are some, who pretend to be better in- 
formed, because neither the name of this giant, nor any of his ac- 
tions are mentioned in their histories, though J onsen and others had 
the weakness to print this fable as authentic at Holum, about the 
year 1750. We visited this cavern in the voyage that we un- 
dertook in 1755, and found it of a very considerable length and 
breadth, though only six or seven feet high. On the inside we 
observed a number of names and runic characters cut in the 
stone ; but which nevertheless did not appear to be long since 
engraved; they did not therefore surprize us at all, as it is cus- 
tomary for travellers in Iceland and every where else, to amuse 
themselves with cutting their names, and the time of their journey, 
at places, whither they are led by curiosity, or the desire of 
witnessing wonders: and consequently they have left their 
marks on the barks of trees as well as on stones. This cavern 
serves at present as a stable for sheep, by which, on account of 
the gradual increase of dung and sand, its height is considerably 
diminished. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



39 



WESTERN QUARTER OF ICELAND. 

Having noticed every thing of interest in the southern, our 
travellers arrived at the western quarter of Iceland, which is 
comprized under the name of Borgarfiord. It was spring when 
they intended to set off for this district ; but the weather was 
so rigorous, that they could not use horses for travelling till 
towards the middle of summer. They at length arrived on the 
1st August, in the jurisdiction or district of Borgar : this district 
is 14 Danish miles long from S. W. to N. E. that is, from the 
mouth of the Gulf of Borgar, on the point of Akranoes, to the 
land of Arnavatn, situated to the north of Fiskevatm It is com- 
puted to be 8 miles in width in a direct line from the Gulf of 
Hval to the river of Hitar, and something more by the way of 
the mountains. The district is divided into two portion?, one 
^n each side of the river Hvit, and contains twenty parishes. 

R EM ARK ABLE MOUNTAINS. 

This district is full of high and steep mountains, which mostly 
proceed from the grand chain that separates the northern from 
the southern part of Iceland, and from the tops of these may 
be discovered the different glaciers, of which that of Geitland 
only belongs to this quarter. All these mountains are consi- 
dered as primitive, while those to the S. E. nearHvalfiord are re- 
garded as secondary, and have greater analogy with that of Esiau, 
already mentioned. The Thyril is a summit that forms a round 
and very high peak, which is very steep towards the sea ; it 
has received the name of Thyril, because the currents of air 
turn spirally round its top, and occasion furious whirlwinds, 
which take their direction from N. to N. W. and hence travellers 
£_re obliged to take the greatest precautions on approaching it. 
This mountain is formed of several horizontal strata ; and its 
height is estimated at 1,800 feet: The highest of the other 
mountains cannot be much less than from 4000 to 5000 feet. 

OF THE FORMATION OF NEW GLACIERS. 

On passing on the 6th August, near the mountainous summit 
called Mofeli, we perceived at its top a long extent of ice. 
On arriving at the nearest hamlet, we asked the peasants if 
the ice, which covered a part of the Mofeli, did not melt in 
summer ? They ans wered in the negative ; and added, that, having 
been born and brought up in the country, they well remembered 
in their youth that there was not the least ice to be seen in those 
parts ; but that having passed a few years in another quarter, 
they had found with surprize, on their return, the snow had ac- 
cumulated, and from year to year they observed it to decrease 
less in summer. This part fronts the N. W. and we remarked., 



40 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



that there were already crevices formed in the ice of a greenish 
colour, which proceeds from the rays of light breaking against 
them. Hence it appears, that the ice accumulates from time 
to time, and produces new glaciers on mountains of inconsi- 
derable height, when cold winds blow regularly at certain periods 
every year, and when the nature of the soil is not inimical to 
their formation. 

There is a mountain called the Baula, belonging to the white 
class # , and which is worthy of notice, on account of its extreme 
irregularity : it is very high and steep, and rises to a point. It 
may be seen at a great distance, and, in all probability, has been 
formed by subterraneous fires : the stones of which it is consti- 
tuted, are mostly clear, and, as it were, inserted in each other, 
with the exception however of the rock that forms the sum- 
mit, which is composed of a stony mass burnt to black- 
ness. Amongst the ashes found at the bottom, and which have 
proceeded from eruptions, are black agates of various sizes. 

There are several other mountains in this district, which de- 
serve the attention of naturalists, particularly that of Wester 
Skardsheide, remarkable also for its irregular conformation : 
its rocks consist of stones changed into lava, which substance 
is replete with small crystals of spath and quartz, become 
brittle, yellow, and opaque; their form is various, which 
seems to shew, that they have been subjected to a violent heat. 
One might be inclined to think with Linnaeus and other learned 
moderns, that these stones have been attacked and rounded 
by the action of the air and wind, or that they have been 
changed into a calcareous matter from a want of succus mi- 
neralis, or mineral juice. There are, however, many reasons 
for the opinion which we have given having a better founda- 
tion. 

JOURNEY TO THE GLACIER OF GEITLANJD. 

We were induced to undertake this journey, because we had 
never before visited any glaciers ; nor had we been able to 
procure any satisfactory information about them. We were also 
obliged to give our own opinion of these wonders, in order to 
conform to the express wish of the Academy. On arriving in 
sight of the glacier of Geitland, which overtops all the other 
mountains, we took an opportunity of satisfying our own cu- 
riosity, and fulfilling the orders imposed on us. 

This glacier, which deserves to be classed amongst the 
mountains most irregular in their formation, furnished us with 
discoveries completely novel. 

* By the white class, the authors mean those composed of gravel and 
argillaceous mould, which present a greyish appearance; in opposition to 
such as are of pumice-stone or lava, and which look blackish or red. £d. 



TRAVELS JN ICELAND. 



GENERAL OPINION OF THE INHABITANTS RESPECTING 
THIS GLACIER. 

There is no Icelander, who does not know the Geitland, and 
who does not admire its wonderful construction, its masses of 
ice, and its extraordinary height, in which it surpasses all the 
other mountains. They likewise believe from ancient traditions 
and legends, that there is in the middle of this mountain a deep 
valley, embellished with beautiful meadows, and inhabited by a 
small body of unknown people, who are said to live with their 
flocks and cattle, and to be the descendants of banditti and giants. 
In the ancient books of Iceland, they are called the men of the 
woods, which fable owes its origin to a saga or history, in 
which it is said, that these giants inhabited the valley during 
winter. It states that at the period in question, that is to say, 
about the year 1026, there lived a herdsman named Thorir, who 
had two daughters, with whom the Grtttis or giants got ac- 
quainted ; that this valley, besides being ornamented with beau- 
tiful woods and meadows, has an abundance of fine sheep, 
which are of the largest size. The same passage adds, and with 
reason, that this valley can never be covered with ice ; because 
there is at the bottom a strong heat and several hot springs. 
We shall not proceed any farther in relating the wonders re- 
ported of this valley : the circumstances that may be relied on, 
are very few, and these are founded only on vague relations com- 
municated by those Icelanders, who had the courage to visit 
the mountain at different periods, and returned without any 
accident. 

Messrs. Bioernsen and Helge, two ecclesiastics of the country, 
examined this mountain and the valley of Thorir. We had an 
-opportunity of procuring the history of their journey, which is 
written in an obscure style ; but it is nevertheless authentic. 
They state that they arrived towards evening, but in delightful 
weather, at a large valley situated in this glacier : it was of such 
a depth, that they could not distinguish whether it was covered 
with grass or not ; and the descent to it was so steep, that they 
were not able to go down, and consequently returned. 

On the 9 th of August, we set off from Reykholtzdal on our 
way to the glacier of Geitland : our object was not to discover 
a region, or inhabitants different from those we had quitted, 
but our journey was to observe the glacier with the most 
scrupulous accuracy, and thus to procure new intelligence re 
lative to the construction of this wonderful edifice of nature. 
The weather was so fine, and the sky so clear, that we had 
reason to expect we should accomplish our object according to 
our wish ; but it is necessary to state, that in a short time the gla- 
ciers draw towards them the togs and clouds that are near, that 

OLAFSEN.] F 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



is, within the distance often miles. In the morning we crossed 
the valley of Reykholtz, the bottom of which abounds in hot 
springs, and exhales a subterraneous heat. In the whole of this 
neighbourhood, there were evident marks of slight eruptions, 
the pasturages being in many parts destroyed and covered with 
scoria, while such spots, as have not been * subjected to the 
action of the fire, present eminences abounding with herbage. 
The soil, even in the parts that have been attacked by the fire, 
is nevertheless covered with birch-wood and shrubs, a variety 
which renders it very agreeable. 

On the 10th August, in the morning, the air was calm, but 
the atmosphere was so loaded with fog, that at times the glacier 
was not perceptible. About II o'clock, however, it cleared up, 
and we continued our journey from the village, of Karlsma- 
runge. 

The high mountains of Iceland generally rise in gradations, 
so that on approaching them, you discover only the nearest 
elevation, or that whose summit forms the first projection ; on 
reaching this, you clear a similar height and arrive at the next, 
and so pass over successive elevations till you reach the summit 
of the ridge. In the glaciers, these projections generally 
commence in the highest parts, and may be discovered at a 
distance, because they overtop those mountains that do not form 
the glaciers themselves. This journey afforded us ample room 
for observation : and we remarked, that here the lowest mass 
of rocks was also the strongest. On attaining the first elevation, 
we perceived that the grass and plants became more scarce ; 
and on advancing the eighth of a mile farther, they were no 
longer to be seen ; there was even a want of soil, and on ar- 
riving a little higher, we found nothing but barren rocks and 
stony ruins, which were no where susceptible of fertility. 

We now found, that it was much farther to the glacier than 
we had imagined ; and at length reached a file of rocks, which, 
without forming steps or gradations at the part where we as- 
cended, were of a considerable height and very steep. These 
rocks extend to a great distance, and appear to make a circum- 
Vtillution around the glacier ; for we perceived their continuance 
as far as the eye could reach. Between this file of rocks and 
the glacier, there is a small plain about a quarter of a mile in 
width, the soil of which is clayey, and exposes neither pebbles 
nor flakes of ice, because the waters that continually flow from 
the glacier, carry them off. On advancing a little farther, we 
discovered to the right a lake situated at one of the angles of 
the glacier ; the banks of which were covered with ice, and the 
bed received -a part 6f the waters that ran from the mountain, 
lite water appeared entirely green, a colour it acquired by the 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 43 

rftys of the light that broke against the ice. After many turnings 
and windings, we found a path by which we could descend with 
our horses into the valley; on arriving there, we met with 
another embarrassment, as well in crossing a rivulet formed by 
discharges from the lake, as in passing the muddy soil, in which 
our horses often sunk up to the chest. In some parts, this soil 
is very dangerous to travellers, many of whom have perished in 
it from the depth to which they have sunk. 

VIEW FROM THE TOP OF THE GEJTLAND. 

Our object was at length attained ; for we arrived at the 
Geitland, but found it a very disagreeable place. We dis- 
covered a mountainous peak rising above the ice, and which, as 
well as the other mountains, has been formed by subterraneous 
fires. We led our horses across the rocks, and as high as we 
could go over the masses of ice, after which we left them, and 
travelled the remainder of the way on foot. The leather em- 
ployed in Iceland for the soles of shoes, is not so pliable as 
that used for the same purpose in other countries : we, in con- 
sequence, took the precaution of providing sticks with strong- 
iron points, for supporting ourselves upon the ice. The Ice- 
landers always use these sticks in winter, in passing the ice and 
congealed snow r : the stick is two ells long, and the iron poin£ 
about half a quarter of an ell. We likewise procured a long 
and strong rope to give assistance to such as might fall into a 
hole, or sink beneath the snow; and we had a compass which 
we considered to be indispensable, as well for guiding us, 
as to observe, whether at so considerable a height there was 
any declination in the needle. Thus prepared, we began to 
escalade the glacier at two o'clock in the afternoon : the air 
was loaded with a thick fog, which covered the whole mountain; 
but hoping that it would disperse, we continued our dangerous 
and troublesome route, though at every instant we had to pass 
<leep ravines, one of which was an ell and a half in w i(Jth ; and 
which required the greatest precaution to cross it. 

We soon convinced ourselves, that the clefts or ravines which 
we met with, do not, as is generally supposed, proceed from 
the enormous weight of the ice and the extreme cold that prevails 
in winter, or from the compressed air, that causes the rocks to 
split; but rather from the thawed waters which form small 
rivulets on the glaciers, and by gradually running, excavate 
ravines in the ice, which in time acquire a greater depth, inso- 
much that most of them are twenty fathoms deep : while there 
are some, which it is impossible to sound. On this subject we 
made die following observations. There are none of these ravines 
on the summits of the glacier, but only where the ice has col" 

F 2 



44 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



lected in large quantities,, and where the rain and chaw-wata^ 

most frequently run. These ravines have not an equal direction 
either with the longitude or latitude of the gkeier, and do not 
depart from a fixed point, either where the soil which is below 
die ice might be more elevated, or where the force of the air 
might be supposed to have a greater action. These ravines are 
larger and more numerous towards the foot of the glacier, where 
one might expect to find them smallest, and in less number than 
towards the top: the deeper the)- are, the more narrow they are; 
while, in general, they are wider at top than at bottom. We 
saw water running in the little ravines, while we only heard a 
strong murmur of the water falling into the greater near their 
mouths. The bauks of these ditches are covered with sand 
and ashes,, left by the water, when it has overflo wed. 

SUMMIT OF THE GLACIER. 

On approaching this point, we found the wind much stronger, 
and the flakes of snow larger and more abundant ; fortunately, 
we had the wind in our backs, which facilitated our ascent ; but 
we met at the same time with heaps of snow, which rendered 
our progress difficult. Hoping, however, that the weather 
would change, we agreed not to return till we had gained the 
summit, from which arose a black rock, that we could perceive 
at intervals. At length, after travelling two hours, we found 
that w 7 e had made no additional observations, since we could 
discover nothing in the distance. A file of burnt rocks, but of 
inconsiderable height, rose above the ice, and at these we stopped 
to rest. The riakes of snow obscured the air so much, that 
we hardly knew how we should get back : we examined the 
compass, but without observing ehher variation or declination ; 
and we w 7 ere prevented by our guides from going towards the 
N. W. where the mountain is highest and least accessible. The 
weather continued the same on the Geitland, so that we found 
it impossible to resist much longer the intemperature of the air, 
and deemed it prudent to return. Although the sky was very 
heavy and dark, we discovered, on retrograding, the entrance 
to a valley ; if the weather had been more favourable, we 
should doubtless have had the pleasure of observing the scite 
of these environs; but we doubt whether we should have dis- 
covered the valley of Thoris. As we descended, we found the 
wind in our face, which threw the snow so much against us, 
that we could not observe the traces we left on ascending ; and 
it therefore only remained for us to take the road that was least 
steep. By this means we again met with ravines, which rendered 
our descent very d ingerous, because they w T ere from three to 
to three ells and a half wide, while the soil that separated them 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



45 



was very uneven; insomuch that we were obliged to go often 
out of our way., or to run the risk of being precipitated to the 
bottom. 

PYRAMIDS. 

We here observed two very remarkable particularities; the 
first is, that the sand has accumulated upon the ice of the 
mountain in round and black pyramids, in the shape of a sugar- 
loaf. They are of such a regular figure, that they appear as if 
the sand had been placed by art. These conical elevations are 
from four to sixteen feet in height, and are only a few paces 
distant from each other: while their shape is that of a steep 
ridge, from which rise others, each being smaller than the one 
that precedes it. In some places they are not so regular as 
in others, but particularly where we began to escalade the glacier; 
because the sand, by being conveyed over the glaciers, mostly 
falls in them. It is justly supposed, that it is not possible for 
the sand to remain heaped in this manner, but that these heaps 
may preserve their form till it is altered by the imbibition of 
moisture. On pushing our pikes into these pyramids, we as- 
certained, that their newel, or interior mass, was principally 
composed of ice. In the first which we examined, the mass 
that formed its base had given way, or more properly speaking, 
had been dissolved by the water that ran off from its summit ; for 
in this, as well as in most of the others, we observed a sort of 
gutter or trench. 

It is well known, that on the glaciers the greatest quantity of 
snow falls in winter, and that the winds convey thither the sand 
and dust from the adjacent mountains, which are generally 
covered with this substance. Experience has at the same time 
proved, that the high mountains and particularly the glaciers 
attract the air towards them, and with it whatever it may en- 
velope : this sand, which moves about like waves, accumulates 
by falling in the lowest places upon the heaps of snow, and 
to four or five feet in height on the ice of the mountain. In 
spring the snow melts by the action of the rain or the sun ; and 
the thawed water meeting in its course with a mass of snow or 
sand, increases in the parts where such mass is most abundant, 
till it form a lake. The great masses being, on the contrary, 
more compact from their weight, resist these thawed waters, 
and retain the sand which covers them, so that they suffer but 
little from the influence of the air. It should also be observed, 
that the snow which forms them, entirely absorbs the water, 
which in the night freezes again ; for though in summer the air 
be very clear during the day, and the sun very brilliant, it freezes 



46 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



on the glaciers every night. Hence the masses in question being 
covered with sand, as is already observed, the rays of the sun 
act but little upon them in the day-time, so that the small solution 
they undergo externally, serves, after the frost that occurs at 
rnght, only to -render the sand that covers them, more even, or 
to form it into a more compact mass with the snow. Thus 
the currents of air whirling round these little eminences, and 
acting from their base up to their summit, form, from the heaps 
of sand and ice, the we have been describing. 

HOLES FORMED AMONGST THE ICY EMINENCES. 

We were very much surprized to find amongst these pyramids, 
several holes formed in the ice, most of which were about a 
foot in diameter, though some were two or three feet; several 
of these were so deep that we could not find their bottom, in 
consequence perhaps, of their running obliquely : they were 
filled with a very cold and limpid water. It is perhaps more 
difficult to define the origin of these holes, than that of the 
pyramids ; but we may, with tolerable certainty, attribute them 
partly to small strata of ice heaped on each other, having given 
way to the action of the waters and the air. 

The ice is generally more or less full of holes, because in 
proportion as the water freezes, the air concentrates within it, 
and accumulates in the form of bulbs, round or oblong, some 
©f which are even six inches in diameter, while others are so 
small as to be almost imperceptible, though very numerous. 
The ice which is formed on the rivulets and lakes of fresh water, 
is filled in spring with such a multitude of these holes, that it 
appears like a sponge, in consequence of the water and air 
bursting at the surface by the elasticity they acquire. Hence 
the largest holes appear in places, where the ice has had more 
vesicles collected together. That ice which arises on the sea 
and at Greenland, approaches in its quality very near to that 
of the glaciers, as well in its colour as in its compactness and 
specific gravity. The water also which the latter contains, pos- 
sesses the same limpidity, and has a taste equally agreeable, as 
that of the glaciers; we consequently are of opinion, that what 
lias been said relative to the formation of the bladders or bubbles, 
applies likewise to those of the sea and Greenland. We must, 
nevertheless, observe, that, though the ice of the glaciers be hard 
and compact, it contains much less extraneous matter, than 
that which is formed in other parts ; because the latter is 
mixed internally with particles of earth, sand, and small stones, 
conveyed by the wind and rain from the neighbouring pastures. 

We at length quitted this dreadful region, in which we had 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND* 



47 



been exposed to so many dangers : we soon gained the foot of 
the mountain without sustaining any great fatigue or embar- 
rassment, and arrived at the spot where we had left our at- 
tendants; who informed us, that while we were on the moun- 
tains they had not felt any strong wind, but had been incom- 
moded by a drizzling rain, while the glacier was incessantly 
covered with fog. This proves, that the atmosphere of vallies 
is very different from that of high mountains. 

RAMPART OF STORES ON THE BORDER OF THE 
GLACIER. 

Along the file of ice extending from the Geitland, we found 
a rampart consisting of ruins of pumice-stone, and other rocky 
particles of various sizes; and we also remarked in it some large 
masses of stone which eight men could scarcely move. This 
rampart is more than sixty feet in height, and runs along at a 
few paces from the file of icy flakes already mentioned. 

This singular arrangement of nature struck us in a forcible 
manner ; our observations induced us to think, that this accu- 
mulation had proceeded from the base of the glacier, and that 
it could only have been formed by some extraordinary shock. 
One idea is founded on the following circumstances : first, it 
clearly appears, that this chain of ice has been broken longi- 
tudinally, since in the other glaciers it is found at the foot of 
the mountains, where it forms a slope, so that one can ascend 
without difficulty. Secondly, because in every part of the 
glacier we discovered falls of water, and small rivulets ; and thatt 
towards the bottom, where the ice is not very thick, we per- 
ceived them through the clefts in that substance, while near the 
top, where the ice is much stronger, and the clefts are more 
contracted, we could only hear the murmuring of the water. 
These springs take their course at the kind of rampart just 
mentioned ; but it is not possible that they can proceed towards 
the lake of fresh water in the neighbourhood of the glacier, 
and from which a river takes its source. Thirdly, we rest our 
opinion on the circumstance, that the stones which form the 
rampart, are rounded and polished by the water, particularly 
those of a small size. Hence from what we have said, it may 
be presumed, that this quantity of stones and ruins has been 
conveyed successively from ithe foot of the glacier by conti- 
nual fails of water. The glacier itself is constituted of rocky 
iubstances burnt and thrown together without order, and the 
summits of which rise considerably above the icy fragments. 
The waters are formed from subterraneous drains beneath the 
rampart, while at the time when the chain of ice descended 
as far as the foot of the mountain, their current must neces- 



43 



QLAFSEN ANI> POVELSEN's 



sarily have run from above and over that chain. A large portion 

of the base having, however, disappeared, it caused a vast space 
between it and the ice, which not being able to sustain its 
weight for any time, must necessarily have submitted to a dis- 
ruption ; the falling matter stopt the waters, which afterwards- 
taking their course along the rampart, sunk and carried the icy 
fragments along with them, from which has been formed the 
space between the rampart and the chain of ice. 

To these same causes may be partly attributed the wonderful 
changes, which in the opinion of the inhabitants of the country 
have taken place in the other glaciers, and particularly in those 
to the eastward. They report, that in certain times their border 
or base extends as far as the plains or level country, while 
in other parts it retires or disappears precipitately or imper- 
ceptibly. 

Finding the night advancing upon us rapidly, we proceeded 
on our journey, as we had a long and very difficult route to 
reach the village. In our way, we observed that the soil in 
various parts of this district differed materially, and that most 
of the plains were of a swampy nature. 

OF THERMAL WATERS OR HOT SPRINGS. 

It is a matter of surprise, that learned Europeans have hitherto 
said nothing of the Thermal springs that abound in Iceland ; 
and it would still be more remarkable, if we were to suppose 
them unacquainted with their existence ; for there is no country 
where such springs are more numerous. We shall first mention 
the springs and hot-baths in the district of Borgarfiord, in the 
vicinity of the river Leyr. That of Hver is not the least con- 
siderable ; for its waters boil, but not in sufficient strength to 
rise in globules; they have what our hydraulogists and mi- 
neralogists call the u mm incrustandi" that is, that the particles 
they throw up, by striking against the rocks and stones above 
the water, attach to them and form a kind of white and hard 
crust very similar to gypsum. This crust is composed of small, 
round, worm-like particles, generated by the drops of water 
that separate from each other, after the rocks in question have 
been moistened; and thus they depose the sediment they con- 
tain. On seeing a piece of this crust, it may be mistaken for 
Iceland coral deprived of its ramifications or branches: the 
substance of this crust is by no means calcareous, as has hitherto 
been supposed; and it caues no effervescence either with the 
acidulated waters, or with aquafortis. 

There is another small thermal spring at a little distance 
from that of Hver ; its basin is in the form of a cauldron, and 
its border is covered with grass and concretions, or stalactites, 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



49 



oti which six or eight persons may sit, or the spot may be 
covered with a tent. In its vicinity is a kind of rampart or 
shed raised of earth for the convenience of persons who come 
to bathe. There is formed on the surface a quantity of thermal 
cream, which renders it necessary to skim the water each time 
that a person bathes. This spring is of a mild temperature and 
very wholesome. There are several other springs of a similar 
nature, but they are not deserving of particular mention, if we 
except that of Tungu, which is situated on the left at the en- 
trance of the valley, and is remarkable for its heat, as well as 
for the abundance and strength of its waters. Their basin is 
composed of a bole earth and the bottom consists of rocks : in 
these there are four apertures, from which the water issues with 
such a noise, that those who ire near it, cannot hear even when 
they halloo in each others ears. These boiling springs rise in 
fountains to the height of three or four ells ; and after being 
propelled for a few minutes, they stop for an equal space. And 
this operation successively occurs in the second, third, or fourth 
openings. The people in the vicinity collect this water for 
cooking, washing, and other domestic uses; that which flows 
over the reservoir, runs into the river., and communicates to it 
a gentle temperature. 

With respect to the advantages of these hot springs, the in- 
habitants find them considerable ; they serve as ley for steeping 
their cloaths. They boil in them, as in a sand-bath, their milk, 
vegetables, eggs, and most of their food, which is soon and 
nicely cooked, without acquiring any unpalatable flavour; though 
it should be observed, that they take care to keep the utensils 
closely covered : by this means they save much fire. By 
steeping wood in this water, it acquires the pliancy necessary 
for making barrel-hoops. It produces the same effect upon 
bones ; and there are some springs in the valley of Reykhoitz, 
which give to the horns of sheep and other cattle, the same 
flexibility as whalebone. It is also worth notice, that in some 
of the thermal springs of Iceland, bones lose their polish and 
natural colour, and appear as if they were calcined by fire : but 
this happens only in such as possess a strong degree of heat, 
It would require a particular treatise, to enter into details on 
the medical properties of these waters, which have already been 
described by other writers. We only had occasion to make two 
simple experiments on these waters; one with an infusion of 
salt of tartar, and the other with syrup of violets, neither of which 
produced the least change. They are extremely wholesome, 
either for bathing or for drinking, particularly after much 
fatigue. 

ola fs en. } $ 



50 



OLAF3EN AND POV'elSEn's 



VARIATIONS PRODUCED IN THE TEMPERATURE OF TH5 
AIR IN WINTER BY THE THERMAL SPRINGS. 

The extraordinary changes in the air in the district of Bor- 
garfiord, may be considered as phenomena, but they are only 
occasioned by the multitude of hot-baths or thermal springs, 
which exist in that quarter. These changes are particularly re- 
markable in the valley of Reykholtz, where the interior of the 
soil, as well in winter as in summer, retains a permanent heat, 
go that the surface never freezes, an admirable advantage for 
cattle. The smoke and continual vapours that rise in the air, 
occasion many showers, that fall even during the finest sun- 
shine, but they do not last long, as they proceed only from 
clouds that have been precipitately formed : such showers, 
however, merely proceed from the lightness of the atmosphere : 
for the more condensed vapours, which cannot rise so hish as 
the smoke, fall m such abundance, that the herbage and plants 
% are loaded with large drops of water to the extent of twenty 
paces ia circumference, even during the prevalence of sun- 
shine and winds, and this more or less according to the size 
or circumference of the thermal springs. On approaching these 
spots, one's hair and clothes become perfectly white, as if 
covered with hoar frost, and shortly after they are quite wet. 

In the hottest part of summer, no peasants or labourers are 
to be found in the fields, as they remain in shady spots or within 
their houses : they work only in the morning and evening ; and 
when the nights are clear in harvest time, they employ themselves 
in getting in their crops. This method of living is customary 
throughout the country. 

Our travellers now enter into very minute and dry descrip- 
tions of various kinds of stones, earth, and fossils, which, we 
should think, cannot excite the smallest interest in the mind of 
any reader, except the lapidary and mineralogist. They are also 
very diffuse in their description of the plants in this district, 
amongst which we find the following particulars of the 

PREPARATION OF THE LICHEN TSLANDICUS*. 

We read in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at 
Stockholm, for the year 1739 and 1744, that the Icelanders 
prepared a bread from this moss. Although we have not been 
able to procure sufficient authority for this assertion, we do not 
doubt its possibility, if a little flour were added to the com- 
position, as we have made the experiment ourselves. But^hc 

* A vegetable which has lately been introduced to this country, antf 
employed with considerable success in pulmonary consumptions. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



51 



most common preparation of this moss, is to make it into gruel, 
after steeping it in cold water for a day; because this process 
extracts from it a very disagreeable kind of bitter. On taking 
it from the water, and leaving it to drain, it is boiled in skim- 
med-milk to the consistence of a jelly, which is eaten either 
quite hot with, butter, or cold with curdled milk. Sometimes 
after steeping it, they chop it up, and at others leave it to dry 
before the fire, or in the rays of the sun; after which they 
reduce it to powder with a kind of mallet, and then boil it in 
milk, by which they obtain a very agreeable dish, very nourishing, 
and easy of digestion. 

The salutary properties of this moss are known. Borrichius, 
who calls it Muscus catharticus, is mistaken in attributing to it 
a purgative quality, for experience has proved the contrary, and 
the utmost it can be said to do in this respect, is to keep the 
body gently open. Linnaeus expresses a doubt, whether this 
lichen afTords a good nutriment to the Laplanders, who use it 
daily ; we can assert, that we have constantly seen it eaten by 
the inhabitants of this country, have eaten it ourselves, and 
have not discovered that it possessed the least cathartic property. 
This lichen is, however, the most salutary food that can be 
given to persons attacked with consumption and other diseases of 
the breast : it is easy of digestion, and consequently very good 
for weak stomachs which cannot support heavy aliment. In 
the southern part of the island, we saw a woman attacked with 
a violent diarrhoea, which could not be cured, till she had recourse 
to this moss. We shall only add, that it is a very good nu- 
triment for those who attend to hard labour. It is used by 
the inhabitants for imparting a yellow dye to woollen cloths, 

OF PLANTS AND SHRUBS. 

The principal plants and shrubs in this district, are Lichenoides 
Mrungii folia refer ens, §e. coralloides ; Lichen Niveus-, Lichen 
leprosus ; Cochlearia ; Rhodiola ; Geranium sy Iv at i cum; Vac- 
cinium baccis farinaceis rubris ; Spircea ulmaria ; Saxifraga 
autumnalis ; Plant ago latifolia ( qfficinarum) ; Monophyl- 
lum; Muscus cunarum; Cotiladon palustre; Papaper Alpi- 
mm i Epilobium august if olium; Orchis, Jiore albo; Glaux 
maritima; Betula erecta; Betula procumbens; Betula nana; 
Sorbus aucuparia; Sorbus pumila; Arbutus (uva ursi); 
Vaccinium (uliginosum); Vaccinium mi/rtillus; Empetrum 
nigrum Bauhini ; Salix Alpina glauca :; Salix arbuscula ; 
Salix incubacea ; Salix reperis; Salix Pyrola facie; Lyco~ 
podium (Selago } Fl. Sv. 857 ); Lycopodium selaginoides; 
Lycopodium digitatum; Sphagnum ramis re/lexis; Muscus 
ursinus, 

G % 



52 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



REMARKS ON THE INHABITANTS OF THIS DISTRICT. 

All idea of the conformation and constitution of the inha- 
bitants of the district of Borgarfiord, may be easily conceived 
from what has been said relative to its scite, temperature and 
soil. This part of Iceland presents a variegated picture of 
plains and hills, mountains and vallies intersected by rivers, 
brooks, and springs of fresh and mineral water, as well as 
thermal fountains. The inhabitants of this quarter are mostly 
of a middling size, but in general strong, robust, and ruddy : 
it cannot be said that they are subject to endemical diseases. 
One very seldom meets with a person attacked with leprosy, 
'while this disease is very prevalent in the southern part of the 
island. Diseases of the breast are also vere rare ; but, o» the 
other hand, epidemical and catarrhal fevers are frequent in 
spring and autumn. 

Jn their moral character they are vivacious, laborious, and 
careful ; they are excellent economists, and are very clean in 
their apartments and clothes. Their houses are of the same 
kind as those in other parts of Iceland, except that they are 
higher, larger, and more regularly built; and each house ge- 
nerally has attached to it a hovel or barn, well formed and 
inclosed, and which serves as a magazine for their provisions or 
fish, They have also another out-house, which holds their 
harness, cords, saddles, and accoutrements of various kinds; 
while the horses and other cattle which they keep, require four 
or five stables for their accommodation, which are mostly built 
in a line. The peasantry, who are in easy circumstances, com- 
monly have another building, separate from their residence, and 
in which are beds, tables, and benches, for the accommodation 
of visitors. To this edifice the master of the house generally 
retires in summer, because it is more cool and agreeable. 

The ancient inhabitants of this island knew how to estimate 
the advantages of these summer-houses, or cabins, which w T ere 
nothing more than their cow-houses and ox-stalls. As they 
passed the summer in them with all their family, they took pains 
to build them well, and render them capacious ; and in the 
summer season, their winter habitations remained vacant, or only 
one or two persons were kept to guard them : it, however, ap- 
pears, that this feeble guard was sufficient to secure them from 
banditti, since in their ancient sagas or histories, mention is only 
made of two assassinations committed in this district during 
the eleventh century. 

In their food the people of this district are more orderly and 
economical than those in the south ; though the articles of 
nutriment are not materially different. They have abundance 
•f milk, fish, and butter, Their cupations likewise ar£ 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



5C> 



similar to those in the preceding district, as to be unworthy of 
a specific comparison. The inhabitants of this district have not 
much occasion for amusements to dispel melancholy; nor are 
they addicted to the drinking of spirits, which prevails amongst 
all the inhabitants of the coasts. The amusements of the youths 
are throwing the bar, and wrestling, when they meet on Sundays, 
or when they are conducting cattle to the field. In former 
times the higher classes of society amused themselves with such 
exercises ; but this is no longer the case. At present their 
greatest recreation is the reading of histories, when they assemble 
in winter evenings, or when the snow and strong winds prevent 
them from quitting their houses. These recitations enable 
them to speak their language with much greater purity, than the 
inhabitants of the coasts. They, nevertheless, amuse themselves 
with games at cards, chess, and draughts, and have a peculiar 
manner of playing that last mentioned; they play it without 
men, and blindfolded, while reciting an ancient song, during 
which the spectators observe the most profound silence. 

OE THE PECULIAR INSTINCT OE THE HORSES IN THIS 

DISTRICT. 

In the district of Borgarfiord horses are very numerous, each 
peasant having ten or twelve, while others possess from twenty 
to thirty, including those for riding; every man in easy circum- 
stances having on an average three or four for this purpose 
amongst his family. These animals are of different sizes; but 
they generally have large bones, and are admirably adapted for 
sustaining fatigue. A labouring horse is capable of carrying 
from 300 — 350 pounds weight; while the more robust will 
carry four cwt. and upwards, for rive or six miles*. 

It is not possible to find animals with a greater degree of 
instinct than the horses in Iceland; and of this thev incessantly 
afford unequivocal proofs : they pass in the darkest nights through 
deep snows and amidst hurricanes and rains, over the most 
circuitous paths of the mountains, rocks, and vallies, without 
making a false step, and this even in parts where there are no 
paths traced out, and which are covered with snow and ice. 
When the rider thinks he has gone astray, and knows not whither 
to turn to the right or left, he need only throw the bridle on the 
horse's neck and suffer him to take his own course, when he may 

* The editor presumes that the measures and weights expressed in various 
parts of this work, are calculated upon the standard used in Denmark. 
4s he possesses no means of ascertaining, with correctness, the compa- 
rative difference of the Danish and English standard, he shall leave this 
point to the decision of his scientific readeri; it being in his own opinion, 
a matter of very little importance, 



54 



OLAFSEN* AND POVELSEVS 



be certain that be will bring him to his residence, but parti- 
cularly if it be an old horse accustomed to travel. The peasants 
are superstitious enough to believe that their horses can see, in 
the dark, spectres and evil spirits ; and the reason of this absurd 
idea is, because these animals when travelling in the dark, often 
shew little caprices, such as stopping short when in full gallop, 
rearing, and refuting to go forward even in spite of the whip. 
Vk hen it is necessary to pass marshes or other dangerous places, 
they advance with ail possible prudence, and some are so active, 
that they will leap over parts with their rider or burden, in which 
others will sink, that it requires the greatest difficulty to get them 
out. On arriving near a swampy place which they are obliged 
to cross, they first stop, and smell the ground, as if they would 
sound its depth; after which they either venture on it, or turn 
back: in the latter case no chastisement will force them to go 
forward ; and if by chance one of them should be compelled to 
enter the swamp, it may be relied on that he will sink in. 
When this happens to a horse, he loses his courage for the 
remainder of the journey, and darts into all the marshes that 
he meets with, notwithstanding others that may have gone before 
him, leave the traces of their route and pass without difficulty. 
We have ourselves had experience how 7 disagreeable and weari- 
some these roads are, from the number of swamps and marshes 
they contain ; and we should not make a proper conclusion, if 
we did not relate some of the w onders which the ancient in- 
habitants have transmitted relative to the instinct of their horses. 
It is said, that some of them will swim over the largest rivers, 
either with their rider or a very heavy burden; though they 
admit, that they do not try such experiments, except on the 
most pressing exigencies. They also add, that their horses have 
been known to pass in mild weather over the gulphs of sea- 
water, which are upwards of a mile wide, and to rest at intervals 
on the shore. It is certain and well known, that the horse swims 
well ; but we never saw any that crossed a river with such ease 
as those of the eastern part of the country. Some of these horses 
sell for four rix dollars, and others for as much as eight or ten; 
but the last price is seldom given. 

In the district of Borgarriord, the meanest peasant has six or 
eight cows, as well as a bull and some oxen. They castrate 
the calves, when they are eight days old; while such bulls, as 
they intend to convert into oxen, do not undergo the operation 
till after three years, at w hich period they run the risk of pe- 
rishing; and the former are much more adapted to fattening 
than the latter, though they are smaller and not so strong. In 
summer the inhabitants of this district turn out their cattle to 
the pasture in the open country, where they become very wild. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



55 



and often dangerous to travellers. There is an ancient law, 
which expressly commands farmers to keep in summer their bulls 
within inclosures, and which makes the owners responsible for 
any damage that these animals may occasion, as well as for the 
injury they may do to cows with calf. When they fatten their 
oxen, they feed them upon hay of the best quality and finest 
scent, taking care, that it is not heated, and often cutting it 
into chaff. They feed them in the stable; and on fattening 
young calves, they first give them pure milk, afterwards milk 
and water, and lastly skim-milk. 

With respect to their management of sheep and other cattle, 
there is nothing particularly worthy of notice. In the lambing- 
season, which takes place about the middle of May, they keep 
A\\e sheep in stables near the houses, till they have recovered ; 
but the lambs require the greatest care to secure them from the * 
attacks of wolves, foxes, ravens, and eagles. The eagle in par- 
ticular, is their most dangerous enemy, and the greatest precau- 
tion is necessary to protect the lambs from its violence, because 
it hovers at a great height in the air, till an opportunity offers 
for darting on its prey. As it suddenly falls upon the animal, 
in an oblique direction, and fixing its talons in its reins, flies off 
w ith it to a distance. The best method adopted by the shep- 
herds, is to light fires in the fields of horn, wool, and other 
fetid substances, in order to prevent the eagles from hovering in 
the air. When a lamb is so weak as not to be able to follow 
its mother, or when the dam has not milk enough to rear it^ 
they take it into the house, and feed it on the milk of another 
sheep or a cow, by means of a quill covered with leather to 
resemble a teat. When a sheep loses its lamb the shepherd 
adopts a singular piece of artifice ; he places the sheep in a 
dark stall, and taking a lamb from another sheep which has 
yeaned more than one, he puts it to her, when it generally 
happens that she adopts it, without farther formality; but if the 
contrary, he skins the dead lamb, and puts the skin over the one 
intended as a substitute. If this last attempt do not succeed, 
they hold a lamb near the sheep, and force it to suck. 

They milk the sheep like cows, regularly tw r ice in twenty-four 
hours, and some of them afford a very considerable quantity : 
the milk is made into butter and cheese, or it is eaten in various 
ways. 

The Icelanders do not shear their sheep, but let the wool 
fall off spontaneously, which occurs in spring when the atmo- 
sphere begins to be warm. The first wool of these sheep is fine 
and short, but at the beginning of winter, it becomes hard, long, 
and knotty : it is used at Copenhagen for making garters of 
various colours, where the greatest connoisseurs are deceived by 



56 



OLAfSEN AND POVELSEN's 



taking it for camel-hair, particularly when the wool is mixed 
with a portion of goat's hair, which renders it soft, fine, and 
preferable to that of Zealand, 'Hie manufacturers at Copen- 
hagen have long made a mystery of this composition, and they 
procure the materials from the Wool-Company of Iceland at 
a very low price, if we reflect on the care of the Supreme 
Being for the preservation of every thing that exists in nature, 
we shall see the reason, why the sheep in Iceland cannot be 
sheared. Their wool being frizzled, rough, and matted, will 
not easily absorb moisture, so that it serves them as a constant 
cloak; hence, if they were to be sheared, it would be necessary 
to keep them all the winter in the stable. They lose their wool 
towards the end of May, when it all separates from the skin, 
which is immediately covered with new tufted bunches. When 
these sheep shed their wool in cold weather, they are liable to 
take cold, in which case the shepherds fix round their bellies 
some pieces of w oollen cloth. In Iceland, there are frequently 
to be seen vast spots of rocky ground covered with grass, at a 
good distance from the villages, exclusive of the pastures al- 
ready mentioned. To these grounds the inhabitants send the 
sheep, oxen, and horses, which they intend to fatten : as for the 
cows, ewes, and saddle-horses, they are generally kept near the 
house, or in the adjoining pastures. 

A JOURNEY TO THE MOUNTAINS. 

The same body of men collected for the purpose of driving 
the herds to the mountains, is also formed towards autumn to 
bring them back. This last period is generally about a fortnight 
or three weeks after Michaelmas : they carry with them horses 
and dogs, a stock of provisions, shoes, and other necessaries; 
and each troop or body, agrees upon the distance they shall go 
to bring the cattle to a certain spot, whither they return with 
all they can collect. 

The navigators who frequent the ports of Iceland, at which a 
trade is carried on with sheep, lately agreed with the Com- 
mercial Company, to change the period at which they were 
accustomed to turn the cattle out to graze ; because when the 
vessels arrived, they were obliged to remain to the middle of 
October, and the result was, that the sellers agreed to deliver 
the sheep one month earlier than usual, which obliged the 
peasant who wished to sell his cattle, to come so much earlier 
to the ports. It may be easily perceived, how disadvantageous 
this innovation must have been to the owner, as well as to the 
agent and purchaser, the tax on poundage being always the same. 

Hence the farmers were obliged to drive their sheep from the 
pasture before they were properly fattened, and afterwards to 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



67 



keep tliem together for some time, before they could be sent to 
their stalls, where they had scarcely rested, till they had to per- 
form a long and tedious journey to reach the markets, which 
reduced them to one half of their value while at pasture. It 
has been ascertained by experience, that the first two days' 
journey emaciates them very considerably, insomuch, that a 
fat sheep which has ten pounds ot suet, loses half a pound a day 
while on the journey; so that when they arrive at the ports, 
they do not fetch a price at all proportionate to their former value. 

It is worthy of remark, that fresh grass in Iceland generally 
induces a diarrhoea in sheep, particularly in moist pastures, which 
often cause their death. This disease is principally attributed 
to the marsh trefoil; and they use to cure it the A: bum greeewn 
in powder, which is given to the animals in milx, either fresh 
or skimmed. The sheep are also subject to the taenia or tape- 
worm, which fixes to the intestines and occasions diarrhoea, and 
which they destroy by giving to the animal the powder of birch 
charcoal. In this country, the sheep and cows are also afflicted 
with a very severe swelling of the udder and belly, which makes 
them very ill: the cows in particular at this time cannot be 
milked, and the disease often causes the death of the animal. 
The common people attribute this malady to subterraneous 
spirits, who come at night, and suck the dug of the animal, or 
draw the milk, to make butter; others attribute it to a little 
bird, which we learned was the Mot a cilia oznanthe, which picks 
the teats of these animals. There are several other diseases in- 
cidental to cattle, which are peculiar to these districts, and con^ 
secjuently not deserving particular notice, 

FOXES. 

The number of cattle here attract whole herds of foxes, which 
the inhabitants endeavour to destroy by every possible means. 
They hunt them principally in winter, and some use guns, while 
others catch them in snares, or in their earths. When they find 
a fox-hole, one of the hunters conceals himself near it with a 
gun, and watches for the fox, always killing the male in pre- 
ference to the female ; because the latter is more easily taken, 
though she remains almost always in her kennel. But if on the 
contrary, they kill the female first, the male and the young ones 
collect in the earth, and can only be expelled by hunger, besides 
which, when the male is away from the earth, he always ap- 
proaches it with the greatest precaution. The hunter frequently 
takes the litter of foxes by opening the ground, and preserves 
one of them alive, which he pinches to make it cry, and this 
induces the male, as it were by instinct, to approach the hole. 
When they cannot succeed in driving either the young or old 

OLAFSEN.] H 



58 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



foxes from the holes, they light a fire at the entrance so as to 
cause the smoak to enter, and suffocate the litter ; but this is 
not the case with the old ones, who are cunning enough to ap- 
proach to a corner at which the fire is weakest, and respire 
without being seen. Hence a hunter is often obliged to remain 
three or four days about a hole, before he can make the fox 
appear-; but the inhabitants of all the neighbouring villages 
make a point of supplying him with victuals ; and if he kill a 
litter of foxes, he receives a reward of half a rix-dollar. In 
winter, as many people go in chace of the fox as may please ; 
but the only recompence they obtain, is the skins of those they 
may kill, which always sell for a certain price. In some years, 
the king has granted a premium to such individuals as may bring 
ten fox skins to the merchants, which is certainly a very good 
method of effecting the destruction cf those animals. A cir- 
cumstance which proves the sagacity and cunning of the fox is, 
that when he is taken by a paw or the tail in the iron traps laid 
for him in winter amongst the snow, he bites off the part which 
is held in the trap ; most foxes, however, are taken by the Nujc 
vomica } which is made into cakes with butter or stale meat, 
others catch them by a line, to which are affixed several hooks 
concealed in the centre of a piece of meat, so small that the 
animals can swallow it. 

MICE. 

There is but a small number of mice in Iceland, and the white 
mouse of the woods ( Mas syhaticus ) appears to be only a variety 
of the domestic mouse. The instinct of this little animal in- 
duces it to collect a quantity of grain for its winter provender; 
and its magazines may be frequently discovered in the woods 
and outskirts. We were assured, that these mice undertake 
long journies, and even cross rivers, on which occasion they have 
the sagacity to pass the water in a diagonal line: they use 
pieces of dry cow-dung for rafts, which they load with grain on 
their return. The number attached to one of these rafts, is 
from four to ten, and each of them assists in launching it. It 
is also curious, that they swim on each side, and their faces are 
opposite, while their tails serve for rudders. These voyages are 
not always successful, for sometimes their boats sink, when they 
save themselves by swimming with wonderful ingenuity. These 
curious circumstances were detailed to us by persons of credit, 
who had had ocular demonstration of the fact. 

In the western quarter of this country, are the same species 
of animals and birds as in the south. Seals or sea-dogs are very 
numerous, and are often killed by the country people, by striking 
them on the head with sticks, and afterwards cutting their throats j 
these animals, we ascertained, to have bones in their legs, though 



TRAVELS IN ICEiAND. 



59 



Mr. Anderson has asserted the contrary. The only domestic 
birds here, are a few hens, as the scarcity of grain will not 
allow them their maintenance. 

SWANS. 

The environs of the gulf of Borgar are filled with swans, 
which resort thither on account of the numerous marshes. They 
collect and remain in a space of the country from eight to ten 
miles long, and three or four broad, consisting mostly of swampy 
spots and lakes of fresh water. Here in August they shed their 
plumage, and the inhabitants take great pains to collect the fea- 
thers, and catch the swans ; young as well as old people availing 
themselves of the time when they cannot fly. In spring also, 
when they begin to lay, the inhabitants collect the eggs. On 
hunting the swan, they repair on horseback, but on this occasion, 
they make use of strong horses, and such as are not skittish ; they 
also bring dogs, which have been taught to seize the swans by the 
neck, which deprives them of their courage and strength. When 
they first arrive, they find the swans with their young in the field, 
which, on perceiving the hunters, immediately take to the water, 
and on this occasion, it is ascertained, that the bird runs nearly as 
fast as the most active horse. Having had ocular demonstration 
of what we assert, we were surprized at the account which Hill 
gives of the swan in his history of animals, by stating it to have 
a heavy gait, on account of the conformation of its feet. But 
the same may be said of all the duck species, while a little re- 
flection will convince us, it is in this kind of progression that 
nature exhibits the greatest perfection in her works, and that 
she has no occasion like man, to act according to fixed rules; 
but that she can deviate from them, and adopt others at her 
pleasure. We have ourselves often seen a species of duck run 
with- great celerity in the field; even when young, when the 
rapidity of their motion is such, that it is impossible to remark 
any changes or movements of their limbs. The hunting of swans 
is not only advantageous to the Icelanders, on account of the 
feathers that they sell to foreign traders, but they also have the 
down and the carcase, which bring a good revenue ; they eat the 
flesh, though tough and hard, and skin the feet in such a way, that 
the nails remain after the skin is taken off, which, when dried, re- 
sembles shagreen, and is made into purses and other trivial articles. 

The birds of this district are, with scarcely any exception, 
the same as those in the southern. We met with a peculiar 
kind of pelican, which appears to be the fourth species men- 
tioned by Linneus, # or the sixth species, which Bassan calls the 

* Pelicamis cinereo- alius, cauda cuneiformi) rostro serratrat, remigibus 
primoribus apice 7iigris. 

H 2 



60 



OLAFSEN* AND POVeLSEN's 



Fisher.* We, however, were not able to distinguish that dif- 
ference of colour, which is said to exist between the male and 
female ; but we do not doubt, that this difference does exist 
between the young and old pelicans. They hunt this bird in 
spring, when it sleeps upon the surface of the water, with its 
head beneath its wing, and continually moving its feet, to main- 
tain its equilibrium. When strangers arrive in Iceland, they 
see with astonishment these round masses floating with the wind 
and tide ; for it is not possible to discover what they are, without 
approaching very near them, or by making a great noise to 
induce them to raise their heads, as they sleep uncommonly 
sound. Nature has also given them the instinct, to select such 
places to sleep on, as do not require much exertion to keep 
themselves afloat. At night, the inhabitants get into canoes., 
and row with muffled oars, that they may not wake the birds ; 
when on coming near them, they stun them by striking them on 
the head with a stick, and afterwards they ring their necks. 
After the chace, or if it have not terminated to their satisfaction,, 
they employ themselves in fishing as they return. Another man- 
ner of hunting this bird is, to watch it, when it is in pursuit of 
herrings, because it then raises itself considerably above the 
water, to discover the fish with its penetrating eye ; and as soon 
as it perceives a heap of fish, it darts into the sea. Sometimes 
as many as a hundred pelicans will fall in this manner with the 
rapidity of an arrow ; when this happens near the shore, where 
the waters are low, some of them often strike against a rock, 
and are killed; these are easily distinguished, as they imme- 
diately float on the water, while the others sink to a considerable 
depth, and remain submersed, till they have satisfied their ap- 
petite upon the fish, so that when they re-ascend, they appear 
heavy and idle, and scarcely able to fly. While the birds are 
submersed, the hunters hasten to the spot in their canoes, with- 
out the fear of alarming them; for being hungry, and naturally 
voracious after their passage through the air, they will even dart 
down contiguous to the boats. They then watch their risings 
and at the moment, strike them on the head. The inhabitants 
procure from these birds a quantity of feathers; they also eat 
die flesh, which is compact and oily. 

GULLS. 

In the jurisdiction of Borgarriord, there is a number of gulls 
of the largest size, ( Laurns albus maximus, dorso et alis supe~> 
rim nigris, L.) It is remarkable that this bird goes to a great 
distance from the coasts, on which it habitually resides, to arrive 



* Fiscaio?\ 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 



01 



in these districts. There is an island in the Hitardal, four miles 
from the sea,, situated on a mountain in the middle of the lake 
of Hittarvatu, which forms an epoch in the history of Iceland, 
A priest named Haldarson, at the beginning of the present 
century, sowed a quantity of Angelica in this island. The cul- 
ture of this plant attracted every year the gulls and wild 
ducks, who made their nests and laid here in preference to any 
other spot, because the little shrubby branches of this plant 
protected their nests from wind and rain. The gull being na- 
turally strong and hardy, protected not merely its own nest, but 
that of the duck from all the attacks of the raven, and another 
species of gull. It is known, that in every other part, the gulls 
are not so favourably disposed towards the wild ducks as here, 
because they do not like their nests to be near each other. 
Another remarkable circumstance with respect to the gull, is, 
that of its agility and strength, w hich enable it to attack the largest 
salmon, when they come up the river. In the Thveraa, the 
water is so shallow in summer, that the salmon cannot swim 
through it, but are obliged to clear certain spots, by jumping 
by the aid of their fins: the gull seizes this opportunity to wound 
the salmon with its beak on the middle of the belly, and this 
ivound, though slight, immediately deprives the fish of the use 
of its fins, or rather of its whole strength, and it consequently 
dies. It also frequently happens, that the wound given by the 
gull, reaches the heart and causes its instant death. 

The sea-swallow is also very numerous in these quarters*, 
and is remarkable for its courage; as it attacks with the greatest 
effrontery all persons who approach its nest or young ; it, how- 
ever, often pays for its temerity with its life. 

There is also here a species of lapwingf, of which such sur- 
prising stories are told by the people, that we must admit it to 
possess more rare qualities than any other kind of bird; it is 
Said, for example, that it partakes of the nature of the worm, 
and that when pursued, it darts into the earth, how ever compact 
or hard it may be. Others assert, that it has very great skill in 
witchcraft, and many similar prejudices prevail against it, which 
doubtless arise from its extreme scarcity. It is, however, certain, 
that this bird exists in many parts of Iceland near the ther- 
mal springs, or in the vicinity of the rivulets and swamps ; 
and that not being able to fly, it lives under ground in little 
holes or cavities ; for, when met with, which frequently hap- 
pens in those parts, it escapes in an instant from the observer, 

* Sterna alba, cap He supra nigro, rostro et pedibus rubris, cauda sor- 
tipata rectricibus duabus extrimis longiasi?}iis, albo nigroque dimidiatis. 
f Tringa rostro brevi nigro tota dilate cenerea. 



62 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



even in the smoothest fields. Hence, there must be little nooks 
or subterraneous hollows, into which it retreats, and which it is 
impossible to discover. In winter, it commonly resides below 
ground, making choice of a soil that does not freeze, and it often 
becomes the prey of wild cats. In spite of all our endeavours, 
we could not succeed in procuring one of these birds : it is of 
a grey colour, its feathers are very soft, and its limbs supple. 

FISH. 

The fish caught in this district, being the same as we have - 
already mentioned in the southern quarter, we can dispense with 
the particulars respecting them. We shall, however, add the 
following curious account of the manner of 

FISHING FOR SALMON. 

The Norder-aa is the only river at which a number of hands 
are employed in catching this fish, the produce of which is di- 
vided between the fishermen and the poor people who come 
to assist them. They first select a part of the river, where the 
bottom is level, and the current not too strong, and a day being 
fixed on for the commencement of the operations, several hun- 
dred persons repair to the spot. At the part where the water 
is most shallow, they form a dyke of stones, leaving, however, 
an aperture, that the current may not be interrupted. This 
dyke is made in two arms, that go off from the shore in a dia- 
gonal line, and terminate in an acute angle, at which is the aper- 
ture. When this dyke is made, they extend several nets across 
the river, and two men on horseback hold the ends of the net on 
each side of the river followed by others, who are likewise on 
horseback ; they then make their horses swim, which so alarms 
the salmon, that they can neither jump over the net, nor escape 
by sinking beneath it. One bank of the river is covered with 
people, who throw stones into the water to increase the fright 
of the fish, so that nothing remains for them, but to make to- 
wards the angles, or be taken in the nets. The fish are divided 
between the owners of the nets and of the land ; while those 
who assist, receive a portion from each. In the Gliufuraa, they 
cannot take salmon by the net, on account of the rapidity of the 
current, and the large stones that obstruct the bed of the river, 
when they fall in winter from the mountains. The inhabitants, 
therefore, use long poles, at the end of which is an iron pike ; 
and with these they strike the salmon and draw it out of the 
water. To attract the fish to a certain spot, they begin to scare 
it at a distance, when it makes off ; and if it can hide its head be- 
tween two stones, it remains motionless, and conceives itself 
in safety. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CAVERN OF SOURTIIER. 

There are many caverns in Iceland, but that called Sourther 
is the largest, the best known, and the most remarkable, as well 
on account of its form, as from the details given of it in the 
ancient and modem histories of the country. In these histories 
its name is said to be derived from that of an enormous giant, 
who resided in it, and the inhabitants believe this fabie ; but 
it is probable that the name of Sourtour, which means black, 
was derived from the colour of the rocks, in which it is 
situated. 

There is no doubt that this cave has been inhabited, not 
by giants but by vagabonds, who escaped to avoid punishment 
for their crimes, which is probable both from its situation and 
the following anecdote. In two of the ancient histories it is 
stated, that in the tenth century, a body of thieves took refuge 
here and found a safe retreat, because, from superstition, no per- 
son would approach the cave, and when they went out to eommit- 
their depredations, they had on one side a number of villages, 
and on the other the land of Arnavatn, which was always covered 
with sheep and oxen at pasture. One day, however, they were 
surprised by cutting off their retreat, and surrounding them in 
a little valley. Several other tales are told of different bands 
of robbers, who have successively resided in this cavern, which 
have made such an impression on the minds of the people^ that 
none of them will attempt to enter it. 

Our travellers visited this remarkable cavern ; M. Olafsen had 
already seen it in the year 1750, but had not been able to pene- 
trate far, on account of the want of torches and other necessary 
things. The peasants of the district made every possible attempt 
to deter them from their project, by insinuating that they would 
never return, as the spirits never failed to punish the curious by 
killing them, or preventing them from finding their way back : 
these tales, however, only stimulated their curiosity. 

This cavern is situated to the south of the land of Arnavatn ; 
and the country that surrounds it, bears every mark of vol- 
canic eruptions. The cavern and its environs consist of rocks 
of lava melted into masses, and exposed to the air a long time 
before the country was inhabited. It may be seen from the 
course of the lava, that the eruption took place from the glacier 
of Geitland or the rocks behind it, and that the flux ran between 
the glacier and another mountain called Eryksnypa, whence it 
afterward separated into two branches. Indeed the whole of this 
extent of country, presents a striking and extraordinary picture 
of the action of subterraneous fire. On one side may be seen 
large masses of detached rocks, and on the other, perfectly ho- 
rizontal strata of stones, melted and mixed into all manner of 



CLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



forms and figures. There may frequently be seen large crevices, 
vaults, and arches In the rocks, but particularly three caverns, 
situated a quarter of a mile to the south of the Sourther. One 
of these was formerly considered a very convenient place for col- 
lecting the sheep, when sending them to pasture, it being very 
long, with an entrance only wide enough to admit the sheep con- 
veniently ; after which they dispersed themselves over the cavern, 
which was large enough to contain two thousand of these animals. 
The third of these caves is the longest of all, as it receives at 
one end a branch of the river of Nordling, and disembogues it 
at a djstance of a quarter of a mile. 

The entrance to the cavern of Sourther is gloomy, and runs 
from N. Wi to S. E. but preserves its height, which is from 
thirty to thirty-six feet, while its width is from fifty to fifty-four. 
Its soil or bottom is uneven, sometimes rising, and at others 
falling ; its partitions are the same, only that there is an equal 
distance between them. On advancing, it is perceived that the 
cavern turns to the south, and afterwards to the S. W. and W. 
in proportion as it diminishes in width. 

Our travellers on entering the cavern, lighted a torch, of which 
they had brought a supply from Copenhagen ; it was well 
covered with wax and a thick coating of rosin, so as to resist the 
strong current of air that prevails in subterraneous passages, as 
well as the drops of water that fall from the upper rocks. 
Their progress was the most difficult and dangerous that can be 
imagined, on account of the inequality of the soil, which was 
covered with large fragments of stone, and to the fall of which 
they were incessantly exposed, as great numbers drop every 
year. The vault of the cavern possesses almost the same degree 
of irregularity from the causes already mentioued, as well as from 
the stalactites that adhere to it; the roof is full of crevices, which 
extend longitudinally and perpendicular, and afford passages for 
the filtration of water. 

In this cavern there are stalactites of various sizes, the largest 
are three inches long by two and a half in diameter at their 
base; they receive by fusion, the same form as lava-stone, and 
appear to be composed of the same substance : they are, how- 
ever, rather finer, and are covered externally with a reddish- 
coloured varnish ; internally, they are more or less porous and 
compact, proceeding probably from the greater or less degree 
of heat, to which they have been subjected. 

The sides or partitions of the cavern produce the greatest 
effect, as they are covered with a sort of varnish in horizontal 
squares, separated by borders in relief. This varnish is formed 
of a very fine vitreous, but opaque matter: in some parts it is 
black, but it is generally of a greenish colour, and similar to. 

i 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



65 



that employed in the manufactories of earthenware. This varnish, 
as well as the stalactites just mentioned, affords a certain proof of 
the operation of subterraneous tires, and that the lava, in a state 
of fusion, has passed, like a rivulet, through this channel, while 
it began to cool on the sides and top of the cavern. The flux of 
lava must have given to the cavern its present form ; while 
the same fusion must have covered the sides with the metallic 
alkaline varnish, by melting the interior crust of the cavern in 
those parts where the heat was strongest. The same cause must 
also have produced the stalactites. 

After reaching a certain distance within the cavern, they per- 
ceived the light of day breaking through an aperture in the sum- 
mit; and on passing this hole the cave became as dark as before, and 
they observed on each side, at the height of some feet, the mouths 
of two other caverns. When strangers visit this country, they are 
often induced, from curiosity, to proceed thus far in the cavern ; 
our travellers ascended to that on the right, and then saw two 
other excavations, separated by one partition. One of these last 
caves is narrow, and of no great extent, but the other is double 
its size. A small portion of light is perceptible at its entrance, 
and its height enables a man to stand erect ; it is supposed to be 
thirty feet long, its top is arched, and its bottom is smooth, red- 
dish, and declines at the entrance. Messrs. Olafsen and Povelsen 
found here some large bones of an ox, or similar animal, which 
they considered as the remains of antiquity, because they were soft 
and friable, though they were not exposed either to the attacks 
of water, wind, or weather; they also remarked some common 
stones of a cubical form, and of a different nature from those of 
which the rock of Sourther is composed. It is therefore very pro- 
bable, that they had been brought thither for making a fire-place, 
as their arrangement seemed to indicate that they had been used 
for this purpose. 

Having examined these small passages, our travellers returned, 
and proceeded towards the great cavern at their commencement, 
and to enter which it was necessary to climb an equal height. They 
found it much larger, but more hideous, and totally dark. On 
first entering, they supposed it to be nothing but a simple cavity ; 
but on passing forward they discovered, in front of the entrance, a 
small partition, or kind of column, which, however, was of no 
great extent: it is a kind of gallery extending beyond the cavern, 
and to which they formerly gave the name of the Little Fort. On 
one side is a wall, or kind of rampart, built of lava-stone that has 
been conveyed thither for that purpose. The Stourlonga-Saga, 
vol. 5, represents this place as a security against any attack, be- 

OLAFSEN.] I 



66 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



cause those who take refuge in it can discover all who come 
towards them, and prevent them from ascending, while the 
attacking party is obliged to proceed in darkness. 

At ten paces from the ascent, we discovered an elevation of two 
feet and a half, extending thirty-six feet, by fourteen in width, 
and having in the middle a path about two feet broad. It is pre- 
cisely in front of the entrance, so that one cannot proceed farther 
into the cavern without scaling it: it consists of lava stone of 
a square form, which must have been conveyed from the outside, 
and we are satisfied beyond a doubt, that this cave must have been 
the retreat of the criminal fugitives to whom we have alluded. 
The bottom is covered with a very fine black sand, on which they 
spread sheep-skins, which served them for beds : it is large enough 
for twenty persons to lie with convenience, provided they place 
themselves across, instead of along it. 

Near this spot we found a large heap of sheep and ox bones, the 
base of which was twelve feet in circumference ; they had pre- 
served their form and natural colour; but on taking them into the 
hand, they were so soft that they crumbled to pieces. We 
demolished the upper parts of this heap, and, on reaching the 
lowermost stratum, we found it almost in a state of dust; the 
bones of which it had been formed resembling boiled peas, from 
which the water had been strained. The remains were still moist, 
and possessed a sort of glutinous quality ; we found that the mar- 
row of these bones had separated, from corruption, into two 
parts longitudinally. 

Our travellers expected to meet with some other remains of 
antiquity ; but their researches were fruitless, all the caverns and 
other parts of the country having doubtless been searched, and 
excavations made in them with great assiduity, particularly at the 
time of the Stourloungues, when there was a great scarcity of 
arms. Our party only found in the place just mentioned, as ap- 
propriated for rest, a single small tool, which was but half 
finished ; it was five inches and an half long, and formed a 
kind of bodkin, the upper end of which was perforated in two 
places, and the lower end was incomplete. It appeared as if this 
instrument had served the fugitives for a needle to sew their sheep- 
skins, and the rags which they used for cloaths. They saw no 
traces of hearths, except some stones placed in squares, and 
which had been reddened by the action of the fire ; but they 
found neither cinders nor ashes. There is reason to believe, that 
they ate their food in the two large chambers or cavities already 
mentioned, which must have been more convenient by securing 
them in a great degree from the smoke, which had no proper 
outlet. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



67 



They afterwards went farther, with a view to arrive at the heart 
of the cavern, which grows considerably narrower, till it is not 
more than a foot in height, by even a less width. The cave 
called the Fortification from the rampart already mentioned, is 
fifty fathoms long, while its greatest width is a fathom and a 
quarter, and its height nearly the same. It is so narrow and low 
in the middle, that one can scarcely pass through it on one's knees , 
and when our travellers thought themselves at the end, they found 
that it again widened into the form it had before; towards the 
place where it becomes so narrow, the soil ascends considerably, 
and afterwards slopes down : at the end of this declivity, our tra- 
vellers found a lake of fresh water, the bottom of which was fro- 
zen. They passed it with the water up to their knees, and at 
every step they had additional proof that the whole of these 
caves had been formed by the melting or dissolution of stones. 
The great channel being at length blocked up for some time, and 
the fire not being able to rind a vent, acted upon the sides, and 
melted the rftore dissoluble earths aud stones ; but before the 
fiery matter could thus find an outlet, the great canal had forced 
its way, and had ceased to have any action on the caverns. The 
narrow passage that our travellers found, proves, however, that 
the fire did not operate with the same force upon the rocks in 
that spot, or could not reduce them so easily as the others, be- 
cause they were of a harder and more resisting nature. 

On leaving the cavern of the Fortification, our travellers pro- 
ceeded farther into the Sourther ; they had a difficult route, on 
account of the rocks which were detached from the top, and at 
times were obliged to pass on their hands and knees through 
intermediate spaces rilled with water, and soaked through by the 
drops that filtered from the top. Some of the detached fragments 
of the rock were upwards of five feet six inches in height: at length, 
after many attempts to advance, they perceived some rays of 
light penetrating through an aperture in the roof, and on reach- 
ing this spot they found above the hole a heap of ice and snow, 
which had remained since winter. They purs ued their road to a 
good distance, when they perceived an aperture; but before reach- 
ing it, they found a wall that divided the cavern into two equal 
parts ; this wall was below the hole, but it had fallen to decay. 
The cavern afterwards branched off into two galleries, the left of 
which was twenty feet in length, and the right much more; while 
in both of them they every where observed the effects of fire. The 
gallery to the left became at last so narrow, that they were obliged - 
to creep on their hands and knees ; and at this^part they smelt a 
kind of fetid exhalation, propelled by the air of the subterraneous 
channels : it was an infectious miasma, similar to that which arises 



€8 



GLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



from stagnant marshes. Our travellers, however, were not much 
incommoded by it. 

They afterwards proceeded into the gallery on the rights where 
the cavern regains its former size ; and here they found a lake of 
fresh water, which entirely stopped their passage. One of these 
gentlemen had arrived at this lake in the year 1750. He then 
found its bottom was frozen as at present, but its water was too 
high to permit him to cross ; he ascertained that it was three feet 
deep at the brink, from which he presumed that it must be much 
deeper in the middle. At his present visit, however, it was dif- 
ferent : the ice at the bottom was much thicker, and formed two 
sheets, one above the other ; on this account jthere was but one 
foot of water, and they easily passed through it by keeping close 
to the wall above-mentioned. 

After having overcome every difficulty, they proceeded with 
ease to the other parts of the cavern : the floor here was level, and 
they no longer met with fallen masses of stone and rock ; but 
they perceived that the soil gradually became steeper, and that 
the cavern curved to the S. S. W. They also here found but 
little, either of the stalactites or the varnish, lately mentioned; 
which proves, that the terro-aqueous matter that formed them, 
must have been, in this part, more coarse and much scarcer. 

The air now became very cold and dense, and the darkness so 
much increased, that they went from 300 to 400 paces, without 
perceiving a ray of light; they at last, however, observed the 
fourth and last hole in the roof, which gave them much pleasure, 
as it afforded a current of fresh air, and an easy ascent, by which 
they quitted the cavern. 

They perceived no difference in the air, as they advanced into the 
dark part of the cavern; but afterwards it became more thick and 
condensed; and, on proceeding, the obscurity increased to such 
a degree, that, notwithstanding the strong light thrown out by the 
torches, they could only see two or three steps before them. Ad- 
vancing a little further, they found that the thick vapour that fell 
about them resisted their breath, which could only arise from the 
great degree of cold, the efTect of which was visible on the walls, 
as the whole of them was covered with a thick ice, in long and 
large lumps. The ground was frozen in the same manner; but; 
they ran no risk of -slipping, because the ice was covered with a 
moist and brownish earth, which had fallen from the roof of the 
cavern in consequence of the filtration of the water. 

They considered it as a remarkable circumstance, that to the lumps 
of ice were attached pentagonal and heptagonal figures, very similar 
to those observed in the second stomach of ruminating animals*. 



* Aqualiculus, ap prcecipue reticulum. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



69 



There is no doubt that these figures have been formed m the ice 
by the cold and compressed air: they did not appear in the su- 
perficies., but in the interior of the ice,, which was compact and 
transparent. 

Oil! travellers now thought that they had proceeded as far as 
possible; endeavouring, nevertheless, to go still farther, they 
perceived that the air was more rarified, and that the soil began to 
rise, while the ice was no longer to be seen, and their torches burnt 
clear. The filtration of the water also was very inconsiderable; 
but it had carried with it such a quantity of the moist mould 
already mentioned, that the bottom was so covered with it, as 
to render their progress very fatiguing, as they sunk in it up 
to the ancles, and could not easily withdraw' their feet on account 
of its tenacity. They now came to an ancient heap of stones, 
which had been carefully arranged; and, not far from this spot, 
they found a piece of birch, which had been broken in two: it 
retained its form and texture, but on taking it up, it crumbled to 
dust, a proof that two hundred years at least must have elapsed 
since it was thrown into the cavern. But it was not so easy to dis- 
cover whence the stones that formed the heap had been taken, 
since there were no others in the vicinity, and it would have 
been difficult to convey them from the last aperture in the cavern. 
On penetrating farther, however, our travellers resolved this prob- 
lem ; for at about two hundred paces from the heap, they found 
themselves at the extremity of the Sourther, as it here became so 
narrow, that they were obliged to stop. The narrow galleries, or 
small passages, which admitted the air, were choaked up by lava; 
and they found here another heap of the same lava-stone, from 
which they had no doubt the rest had been taken. Having no 
other object to examine, Messrs. Olafsen and Povelsen returned 
to the heap of stones, and in remembrance of the research, they 
affixed their seals on the summit; they also left two pieces of Da- 
nish silver coin, to prove to those who might undertak the same 
journey, that they would not be the first who had executed a pro- 
ject which perhaps might be considered as fool-hardy. 

On returning, they had the curiosity to measure by their steps 
the distance they had traversed, and found the whole length of 
the cavern to be 839 fathoms. This remarkable cavern is the 
largest of any that our travellers had occasion to see in Ice- 
land. There are several others, which are reported to be greater, 
but there is no foundation for the assertion ; and there is no doubt 
that the Sourther is the widest and most even of the whole. It 
owes its origin to a mighty effort of nature, and indisputably 
proves the operation of subterraneous fires, as it every w here ex- 
hibits the channels through which the melted substances flow- 
ed. It also shews with what facility these fires can decom- 



70 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



pose and melt the earths and stones, carrying them off with the 
matter in fusion. 

Of the acidulous mineral waters of the Hitardal, they have little 
to observe, except that they are the best in all Iceland, being as 
strong as the most spirituous beer, so that a person drinking above 
a certain quantity- of them w ill become intoxicated. 

VARIOUS INTERESTING PARTICULARS, 

THE FORGES OF THE MYEAR. 

We have already observed, that there is a great quantity of 
iron in this district,, particularly in the Myrar ; but there are* few 
accounts of the ancient forges of Iceland, except in some of the 
almost forgotten histories. In one of these, the Egiis-Saga, cap. 
xxi. is an account of the celebrated Shalagrim, from which a 
fabulous legend ought to be erased : it is said that this man 
plunged into the sea, and succeeded in procuring a stone of an 
enormous size, which is shewn as a curiosity to all strangers who 
come to Roedenses, the place at which Shalagrim resided. There 
are many traces to be perceived of a forge, and many authentic 
proofs may be obtained of the knowledge possessed by the ancient 
inhabitants of Iceland, as to the preparation of iron. 

ANCIENT INSCRIPTIONS. 

The scarcity of old inscriptions in Iceland is very astonishing, 
because the people are known to have been very exact in noting 
down remarkable occurrences. It may, therefore, be supposed, 
that inscriptions were not in use amongst them, though the 
Swedes generally adopted this practice, and in that country many 
inscriptions are to be found of a very ancient date. 

That which remains at Borg, in the Myrar, is the oldest that 
can be observed in Iceland. It is engraved on a stone that has 
been conveyed hither from Baula, and is a piece of rock of the 
nature of basal ties. The characters are so much worn out, 
that it was with extreme difficulty they could be recognized, which 
difficulty was increased by the circumstance of the stone being 
broken into three pieces. The principal incsription is remarkable 
for its simplicity. It is in large Roman characters: Her lige 
I I ml Karian — " Here lies Charles Kartan." After this are 
placed three straight lines, but so much worn out, that they could 
not be deciphered; and as for the rest, they appear only to have 
been the initial letters of words. It is, however, conjectured, that 
these are the words intended — Firi svik af saari deydi — " He 
died of the wounds given him by an assassin/' This Kartan was 
descended by the father's side from blood royal, since his father 



T PAVELS IN ICELAND. 



71 



was Olaf, surnamed Paw on account of his beaut)' and magnifi- 
cence. His mother was sister to Myr Kiartan, King of Iceland; 
his history represents him as a man of uncommon skill in medi- 
cine, and adds, that he surpassed all his cotemporaries in the 
arts that flourished iu these remote times. He made a voyage tu 
Norway, where he was well received by the King, Olaf 'Lri/gesen, 
who converted him to the Christian religion. He proposed to 
him to remain at his court, and offered him one of the principal 
places in his kingdom; but Kartan preferred returning to Iceland, 
where, at the instigation of a woman of rank, he was assassi- 
nated by some of her friends near Svinedal, in the district of Dale. 
He died in 1003. It is said, that before he fell under the repeated 
blows of his assassins, he defended himself for a long time with 
extraordinarv valour. As the church of Borg was the nearest, he 
was carried thither and buried. Suorre Sturleson and other histo- 
rians of Iceland mention several particulars of the life of this 
Kartan. 

THE CHURCH OF HITARDAL. 

The antiquities that are met with in the church of Hitardal, 
are of different periods, but are all very ancient. Some are 
sculptured, in the same kind of stone as that which partly forms 
the walls of the church. We were struck with the curious 
appearance of two human figures cut in two angular stones 
on the outside of the church, one of which is represented 
with, and the other without, a beard. The stories related of them, 
are still more curious ; one is said to represent Board Sn& fells 
Aas } a very famous Pagan giant and sorcerer ; while the other is 
asserted to be the figure of Hit, his mistress, also famous 
amongst the female giants; she lived at Hitardal, and from her 
the valley takes its name. But though such accounts must evi- 
dently be fabulous, it is extraordinarv, that the learned Jansen 
represents them as worthy of credit. In a passage of the Baardar 
Saga ,it is said, that w hen the priests undertook to build this church 
with stone walls, which put them to considerable expence, they 
made choice of these female giants, who were Pagans, as patronesses 
of the temple, and ornamented its walls with these figures. This 
building was destroyed by tire in 1 148, on which occasion seventy 
persons perished, among whom was Magnus Einarson, bishop of 
Skalholt. About thirty years ago, on laying the foundation of 
a house near this church, a quantity of large charcoal and half- 
burnt beams were dug up, which were supposed to be the 
m remains of the fire alluded to. In 1 166, Klaenger, the then bisbop 
of Skalhoit, consecrated a farm at Hitardal, and built on it a con- 
vent, at which period the church was doubtless built of stone, 
and the foundation laid of brickwork. Klasuger established 
this monastery to the memory of his predecessor, who met 



72 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN ? S 



with so unfortunate an end ; but it did not stand long, as it was 
destroyed a few years after its erection, by an ignorant man in 
power, who came to reside in the HitardaL 

OF THE FARM AND TEMPLE OF IDOLS IN THE REYK- 
HOLZDAL. 

At Hofstadt, in the valley of Reykholz, a little distance from 
the place at which stands the church, was formerly built the most 
ancient Pagan temple. This place was also the residence of 
I/lnge, surnamedthe Red, who was one of the first conquerors of 
the country. On leaving this spot, he made over to Hotm-Starre, 
of Abranas, the care and direction of the temple, and bargained 
with him not only for the exchange of all the property he pos- 
sessed, but also for his wife named Igi i; the latter, however, not 
being satisfied with the change, hung herself in the temple the 
moment her husband had taken leave of her. 

JOURNEY TO THE WESTER JCEKEL. 

GLACIER OF SCHNEEFICELD. 

This western glacier, winch the inhabitants callSchneefioeldjcekei, 
or, as it was formerly denominated, Sniofell, which means a rock 
of snow, passes for the highest mountain in Iceland. It may be 
considered as insulated from all the rest which stand around it, 
tmd it rises much above them. On our approach towards it, we 
passed by several caverns, which, like those already mentioned, 
had evidently been formed either by subterraneous fires, or a 
natural sinking of the soil. Beneath them we found a number of 
plants jthat had grown to an extraordinary height between the rocks, 
being nourished by the heat of the ground, though the rays of the 
sun never reached them ; from which it is clear, that this vegeta- 
tion is produced entirely by the heat concentrated in the bowels 
of the earth. Several plants were also growing amongst the lava, 
as well as between the uppermost rocks ; and amongst others 
were some shrubs of birch, heath, &c. on which the sheep de- 
pastured bcth in winter and summer. 

Among these caves is one called the u Cavern of Blood," and 
not only strangers, but likewise the inhabitants of the island, never 
pass near it without paying it a visit. It is situated amongst some 
rocks of sand-stone, a little beyond the Strappefell, which is a 
high peak below the neck of the glacier. The entrance to this* 
cavern is so narrow, that the visitor is obliged to creep into 
it on his belly. Within it is about fifteen feet high, by ten 
wide; but not so wide at top as at bottom. Towards the top it 
separates into two concave arches, which appear to have been 
formed by the action of the air and wind, to which, from its con- 



TRAVELS THROUGH ICELAND. 



73 



formation, it offers the fullest scope, and the strong reptircussion 
which gives rise to echo and counter-echo, which, however, is 
not at all regular in its sound. Travellers who enter this cavern 
from curiosity, amuse themselves by singing and hallowing, to. 
hear the effect But it is more remarkable, that the slightest 
sounds are distinctly repeated; as for example, on merely cough- 
ing or speaking in one's usual tone, a melancholy sound or mur- 
mur succeeds. Several niches are observable in this cavern, as 
well as many runic and magical characters engraved on the rock ; 
but most of them are effaced by time. The date of the earliest 
which we could recognize was 1483. 

HEIGHT OF THE GLACIER. 

We were assured that some persons had succeeeded in mea- 
suring the height of the Glacier, from a plain called Breid, 
situated to the eastward, about a quarter of a mile east of 
the castle; we could not, however, succeed in this point, on 
account of the badness of the weather, which prevented us from 
using our barometer. The Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen 
had indeed taken the trouble to send us tubes and mercury for 
constructing one ourselves; but it may easily be conceived, how 
difficult the conveyance of such instruments must be on horse- 
back; besides which, all the utensils necessary for their con- 
struction were wanting: those which we had, contained air, and 
were consequently in such a state^, as not to enable us to trust to 
their graduation. 

The inhabitants of this part of the country considered it as rash- 
ness in us to attempt to escalade the glacier; they gave us a 
frightful picture of the dangers and difficulties we should encoun- 
ter, and assured us, that it was impossible to reach the summit 
of the steep rocks in our view ; that, besides, nobody could even 
arrive at them, on account of the ruggedness of the road, and the 
holes in the ice, w hich could not be passed without the risk of 
being every instant precipitated and lost. They likewise added, 
that if we gained the summit, we should be exposed to the loss 
of our sight by the strong repercussion of the rays of the sun, 
which fall incessantly on the icicles. They then informed us, 
that two hundred years ago, two English sailors made an attempt 
to escalade this glacier; that they succeeded in reaching the sum- 
mit, but one of them soon after became blind, and being sepa- 
rated from his companion, wandered about the mountain till he 
perished, because the other was unable to render him any assist- 
ance in descending. The latter, hower, took the precaution to 
kill a lamb, and carrying the blood in a leather bottle, dropt it on 
the ground as he advanced; so that, though his sight was much 
injured, he could distinctly observe the red spots on the ice, and 

OLAFSEN.] K 



74 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



thus find hi-s way back. Other weak-minded people endeavoured 
to dissuade us from our project, by relating various fables of 
gnomes and other phantoms, but without success; for all they 
said, only contributed to augment our cariosity; besides which, we 
took pleasure in making an attempt that might cure these good 
people of their prejudices. The 30th of June, the barometer 
began to ascend: the weather was fine, and the clouds dispersed; 
while the thermometer proved, that the cold had diminished. 

On the 1st of July, in the afternoon, we set off with every pre- 
paration for our journey. Our instruments consisted of a com- 
pass, a Fahrenheit's thermometer, and a barometer. Our shoes 
were like those worn in the country, having very thin soles* as 
being best adapted for walking on the ice. We ateo had some 
strong ropes for assisting such of the party as might fall into holes 
or crevices, which are very numerous about the neck of the gla- 
cier. We likewise took the precaution of providing black crape, 
to put over our faces in case the light should be too strong, as 
well as a sponge and vinegar to respire it, if the an should become 
too rarified. 

W r e had a tedious journey from mountain to mountain, before 
we reached the glacier. Our barometer embarrassed us considera- 
bly, and we were often obliged to descend from our horses, in order 
to convey it on foot. In short, four hours had elapsed before we 
gained the summit of the highest mountain, which forms, as it 
were, the base or seat of the glacier; and here we found the cold 
very severe, as water froze, and the ground was covered with ice. 

A little farther we reached the Geldingafell, a higher moun- 
tain than any of the others that form the support of the glacier. 
W r e saw scarcely any snow on its summit, and ascended it on the 
side where it touches the glacier; because the ice descends so far 
on the right and left as to project- to a considerable distance 
beyond the mountain itself. We remarked on the north and west, 
where the ice forms a bank, a quantity of stones, which had been 
regraded by water; though, to the north of these strata of ice, we 
only observed one small river, or rivulet, and, to the south, a few 
others; which, if taken together, appear to form only a small 
portion of the water, which must be produced by so considerable 
a mountain and such a quantity of ice and snow, from which we 
concluded, that the glacier must have a cavity at its base, that 
ingulphs the. rest. Hence we should not consider as altogether 
fabulous, the account related of the plain to the west, which are 
said to have formerly contained such extensive rivers, that mer- 
chants' ships could ascend by them to the very foot of the moun- 
tain, where may still be seen the remains of houses reported to 
have formed the magazines of the Irish merchants. 

The land which surrounds the glacier is on all sides covered 



TRAVELS THROUGH ICELAND. 



75 



with holes, clefts, and caverns; some of them are used as shel- 
ters for sheep ; and one of the caverns, situated near the fishery 
of Oendvertnoeus, is considered unfathomable. On entering, it 
forms a number of sinuosities, and doubtless extends as far as the 
sea. It is certain that this, as well as the other caverns near it, 
owe their origin to the cause already mentioned, namely, the 
passage of burning lava. 

JOURNEY TO THE GLACIER. 

We at length, after much trouble, reached the Glacier on 
horseback, and found that our barometer had already fallen two 
inches. We continued our route for some time over tolerably 
level ice; but at last it became lumpy, and we were obliged to 
advance on foot. The farther we proceeded, the more irregu- 
larity we observed in our compass ; insomuch, that we soon 
found it could not be relied on. The weather was finer than we 
expected, the air being calm and without fog, while the rays of 
the suu were only intercepted by thin clouds. The ice did not 
reflect like a mirror, and the cold was so severe, that the warmth 
of the sun was imperceptible: the air became more and more 
light; and, though the ascent was not very steep, we felt our- 
selves oppressed. The mercury in our barometer at length fell 
so low, that it began to flow out of the bowl, which was occa- 
sioned, not only by the external air, but also by that contained 
within the tube. 

After some difficulty in passing crevices and fractures in the 
ice, we reached in safety the summit of the glacier: it forms three 
peaks, each of which is about fifty fathoms in height. These 
peaks appeared to be inaccessible, particularly as some snow had 
lately fallen, and began to freeze; we nevertheless overcame these 
obstacles, and escaladed the eastern peak, by means of our pointed 
sticks and cutlasses, with which we made a path in the ice. We 
could not carry the barometer, but on putting it down, we observed 
that it had already fallen to three inches and nine lines ; as to the 
thermometer and compass, we continued to convey them. It 
was nine o'clock in the morning, and the sun shone in all its splen- 
dour ; notwithstanding which, the cold was so excessive, that we 
could scarcely resist it: the thermometer fell to the 24th degree; 
it must be a very cold winter in Iceland to produce such an effect, 
and it is, therefore, not surprizing that it should freeze with the 
utmost severity on the glacier in that season, since it is so cold 
there in summer. It would be superfluous to attribute the cause 
of this severity to an abundance of nitrous particles, as many learned 
men have already expatiated on the subject. 

The compass was uncommonly irregular : the needle did not 
point to any particular part, but moved repeatedly from one side 

K 2 



16 



OLAfSEN AND POVEI.SEn's 



to the other. Sometimes, instead of pointing to the north, it 
turned to the west, and there remained motionless ; and if it wer€ 
made to change by the finger, it quavered a little, and then set- 
tled at a point directly opposite to that from which it had been 
moved It, however, did not go beyond certain limits ; for it 
remained in the northern semicircle, between the east and west, 
but never removed to the south side. 

\S hat is properly called the Glacier has been melted on the 
south side, and is full of crevices extending in a parallel direction; 
we did not, however, observe any towards the west; but we saw 
one which reached transversely to the summit, and had a horrible 
aspect, on account of its depth, which made it appear entirelv 
green. It is so extensive, that it seems to cut diametrically a 
third of the mountain ; and its depth is so great, that we could 
not discover the bottom. As far as we could see, we observed 
many other crevices, extending longitudinally and perpendicularly, 
but 'hey were all of a very inferior size to the one just described. 

The Glacier has evidently been the cause of the subterraneous 
fire which has overthrown the promontory on all sides; its present 
construction sufficiently proves this; for there may be seen in every 
direction several vast spots, formed of scoria; while in others, 
the soil is in some parts level, and occasionally exhibits banks 
of sand, and white, red, and black pummiee-stone, mixed with 
ashes and pebbles. 

R E TURN FROM THE GLACIER. 

There was ho bog on this part of the summit of the Glacier, 
because it could not rise so high on account of the equilibrium of 
the air. Having nothing more to excite our attention, we thought 
of returning, as the fogs we should meet with below might be 
dangerous, because we could not trust to our compass ; we were, 
however, agreably disappointed, on finding but little fog as we 
deeended, on account of some strong winds which arose and 
dispersed them. 

The wind having changed to the N. E. and the Glacier becom- 
ing enveloped in clouds, we accelerated our return, and towards 
noon reached the bottom of the mountain, without the least acci- 
dent. Towards evening, the weather having cleared up, we made 
arrangements for measuring and ascertaining, as accurately as pos- 
sible, its real height. For this purpose, we employed a chain 
sixty feet in length, and an astrolabe divided into half degrees. 
The result was, that we found it to be 6S6 Danish feet in perpen- 
dicular height. If the state, nature, and weight of the air were 
the same over the whole surface of the earth, so as to enable us 
to draw a just and precise inference from the ascent and fall of 
the mercury, it w ould, perhaps, appear, that the mountains in 
ij-eland are not so high as has been hitherto supposed. 



TRAVELS THROUGH ICELAND-, 



77 



MINERAL WATERS. 

In this district our travellers examined a great variety of acidu- 
lous springs, most of which were similar to those already 
described in the outset of their journey. They made many expe- 
riments with those waters, in order to ascertain their chemical 
properties, but with no great success, owing to the want of a 
proper apparatus. 

ICELAND DIAMOND. 

In a mountain called the Kluckour, our travellers met with a 
species of rock-crystal, (cry at alius puramidalis), the lumps of 
which were mostly laid in small pointed pyramids, on a bed or pe- 
destal of crystal of spath ; they were from a quarter of an inch to 
two inches long, and half an inch in thickness: most of them were 
cut in hexagons, though some formed the pentagon and heptagon. 
The greater part of these lumps of crystal is white aud opake, 
the superficies only being clear or transparent to the depth of three 
or four lines. This crystal is so hard that it cuts glass, and hence 
the Icelanders give it the name of diamond. 

In this country there are various species of rocks, which have 
been formed by volcanic fires; amongst them are the Iceland 
agate, # the native glass, f the hraun, 1 and the natural scoria, § 
which is coloured in the upper parts; besides which are the pum- 
mice-stone, || the stalactites, and the sand-stone, ft The kind 
last mentioned bears fire in a wonderful manner; and we think it 
would be very useful for the construction of stoves, furnaces, and 
crucibles. 

The fertility of the ground is not equal in every inhabited part 
of the Sneefiasld-Naes ; but it is scanty in every direction. The 
places best adopted to the grazing of cattle are in the pasturages 
situated on the mountains. 

REMARKS ON THE INHABITANTS. 

The conformation ofthe inhabitants of this district is various 
on account of the mixture of all sorts of people who come annually 
to fish, and of w hom the majority take up their residence on the 
spot, Hence there may likewise be remarked a great difference 
of their moral conduct: the labouring class are, however, more 
adroit here than in the southern part. About seventy years ago, 
ihe inhabitants in the vicinity of the Glacier were considered to be 

* Agathes Islandicus, an vitri naturalis nigri gfobuli. 

t Vitrum naturalefragilissimum nigrum ligaturis transversis argillaceis. 

I Sio7iia naturalis communis, saxumve iiquatum Cazernomm. 

§ Scoria naturalis pulcherrime picta tt colorata, 

jj Pumex. 

4[ Stalactite vulcanii. 

f r Sarnm tophaceim schistiforme per strata liquatum. 



7S 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



rude and dishonest people; but at present. a very different idea i* 
entertained of theui, as they have been much civilized by the good 
order established amongst them, as well as by their intercourse with 
the other inhabitants of the island, who, in times of scarcity, have 
been obliged to quit their habitations, and take refuge on the sea^ 
coast, to fish for a subsistence. Their houses are here smaller 
and worse built than in the Borgarfiord, particularly those of 
the fishermen, which, though spacious, are very filthy; and, in the 
fishiug season are disgusting to persons who come from any other 
part, on account of the fetid smell which arises from them : they 
are covered in with bad turf, and a few of them are thatched. The 
wretched, manner in which they are built arises entirely from the 
poverty of the people ; and their unhealthiness is occasioned by 
the walls, hillocks, &c. which are formed for drying the fish. 

Such people as are notable to procure tubs and other vessels for 
containing their fish oil, make ditches for this purpose in a com- 
pact and hard soil ; but these are of little use till the second year; 
because, in the first, the oil is absorbed by the ground, which thus 
becomes imperviable to what is afterwards put into the ditch. 
The people are very careless and dirty in their manner of prepar- 
ing food: they live chiefly on fish, which they dress while fresh, 
but have few vegetables, on account of their want of gardens. 
Their drink is similar to that of the people of the other districts. 

We find ourselves obliged to say something relative to the drink 
or nourishment of the children: because this subject has given 
rise to controversies amongst the different authors who have writ- 
ten on Iceland. The mothers only suckle their children for two 
or three days after their birth ; and it must not be supposed, that 
they are then provided with wet nurses. Want alone compels the 
indigent women, who reside at the fisheries, to give them the breast 
longer; but this only happens in those parts, where, after suckling 
for a month, they can procure for them a little cows' milk. In 
years of scarcity these poor little innocents are to be pitied, 
because they receive no milk, either of one kind or other. It was, 
doubtless, in such times, that former travellers saw the unfortunate 
mothers feeding their children with a little milk and water. We 
were assured that, in scarce years, the mothers were able to give 
their children nothing more than warm water, or fish-broth, with 
a few drops of milk to whiten it, as few had the means of procur- 
ing flour for making gruel. 

The chief occupation of the people here is, in summer, fishing ; 
and, in winter, rearing of cattle, in which they adopt the same 
plan as the inhabitants of Kiosan. In spring the women are 
forced to attend on the cows and sheep, to weed the meadows, 
manure the land, &c. ; in summer the men mow the grass ; and, 
if they live near the sea, alternately employ themselves in fishing, 



TRAVELS THROUGH ICELAND. 



79 



though it is seldom that they succeed in both these opposite occu- 
pations. Those who are passionately fond of fishing, generally 
neglect their cattle, and the labours of the field; while others, who 
are more attached to an agricultural life, abandon the fisheries. 
But there is never a want of labouring people in the vicinity of 
the Glacier, since there is always a number of lads who are 
anxious to be occupied. In summer they pass to the interior of 
the country, and are engaged by the day ; and these young people 
are not permitted to abandon any regular occupation, unless they 
have property to the amount of forty rix dollars : which property 
must consist partly in cows and sheep. This precaution is highly 
judicious in a country where the population is too thin to afford a 
sufficient number of hands for improving its possessions. The 
landholders also will not accept any person who is not of sufficient 
age and vigour to support hard labour, or who may not be ca- 
pable of active assistance in time of harvest. The time of labour, 
in a day, was determined by an ancient law called Boelagen, but 
it is too severe, and there are few men who are now able to fulfil 
it; which must prove, that the ancient ell of the Icelanders was 
much less than it is at present. According to those laws, which 
seem to have been prepared with much wisdom, each labouring 
youth, who in harvest time might cut thirty square fathoms per 
week, or nine hundred Iceland ells, received one rixdollar in 
money, and his food. Those who could not do so much, were 
paid in proportion to the work they performed. There are, how- 
ever, some, who, though considered as middling labourers, since 
they perform one-fifth less per week than the quantity just men- 
tioned, receive for the season, besides their food, two rix dollars in 
money, eight ells of woollen cloth, two pair of stockings, a pair of 
woollen gloves, and a new dress for fishing ; besides which, they 
have a right to be provided with a lodging. The food and wages 
of a domestic servant are of less value; but a lad, on the contrary^ 
can earn in summer eight rix dollars, which are paid to him in 
butter, woollen cloth, sheep, and partly in money. 

From what has already been said, it must appear, that the majo- 
rity of the young people lead a life of celibacy, because they are 
not able to accumulate the sum established by law, to settle them 
as small farmers ; a circumstance which materially militates against 
the progress of population. 

OF THE PREPARATION OF SKINS AND LEATHER.* 

One employment of the inhabitants of this district consists in 
the preparations of skins and leather, which are used for dresses 
for the fishermen, and in making forge-bellows'. Tli£ strong 
leather w hich is made into ropes and harness, is saturated with 
fish oil, after which it is rolled up and beaten with a billet of 



10 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



wood, till it acquire a proper degree of pliancy. They also pre- 
pare skins by steeping them simply in skim-milk or brine: these 
used for saddles are tanned with birch-bark, and afterwards blacken- 
ed with the same dye, that is used for woollens. There are also 
other processes in the dressing - of skins, of which thev make a re- 
gular trade: some they rub and impregnate with the brown fat of 
their smoked meat, which gives to the skin an intolerable fetor; 
others are made more pei fectly white, clean, and sweet, by rubbing 
them with cream mixed with a solution of salt; and these skins 
are admired by all travellers for their beauty and goodness. 

OF THE FISHERIES. 

So much having already been said of the manner of fishing in 
Iceland, we shall be very brief in our remarks on the method 
adopted in the country of W esterjoekkel, or to the west of the 
Glacier: it is, however, deserving of some notice; inasmuch as 
the fishery here is the most important of any in Iceland ; while 
the manner of fishing differs considerably from that practised iu 
the other districts. In this quarter the fisheries that surround the 
Glacier are very numerous: and the season is from the begin- 
ning of April to the middle of May; and angling, or fishing with 
a strong hook and line, is much and successfully adopted. In the 
vicinity of the Glacier they only use canoes or boats made of oak, 
in which eight or nine men can sit at their ease and follow their 
occupation; while others can only hold from two to four persons* 
They know by experience the spots which abound in tish, and 
throw in bait of worms, or pieces of sole and other fresh fish, aud 
sometimes the flesh of birds, particularly of ravens, which diey kill 
near the Glacier. Each boat throws out from four to six floating 
lines, and two of the men placing themselves at the prow, agitate 
the water with their oars, partly with a view to keep the boat from 
advancing or falling back with the tide, as well as to induce the 
fish to bite, which they will not do if the hooks are shaken by the 
motion of the boat. Notwithstanding this simple method, these 
fishers will often catch, in a short time, a greater quantity of 
fish, than their boat will contain, on which they take off their 
heads and intestines, with the exception of the liver, and throw 
them into the water. When these fishermen observe, that they 
are likely to have bad weather on their return, they put all the fish 
they have taken, on a string, and throw them into the water ; 
on which the commander of the boat, taking the eud of the line, 
draws after him the vast train of fish, which serves for a rudder, 
and is more useful in a rough sea than any other. On gain- 
ing the point, the greatest difficulty they experience is to have 
their boat on shore, beyond the reach of the tide; they then divide 
tfee fish amongst them. 



TRAVELS IHS ICELAND. 



81 



Tlie fish most numerous here is the cod, -which they prepare in a 
peculiar manner : they take out the spinal bone as far a3 the third 
vertebra above the navel, an operation which they are obliged 
to perform by law,, and which causes the fish to dry speedily. 
They also cleanse it from all the blood it may contain, which 
causes it to take a white colour; and some experienced fishers are 
so particular in this point, that they gut the fish the instant they 
have taken it from the boat. They afterwards pay much atten- 
tion to preparing the bladder, which consists of a coriacious skin 
similar to leather : it is about a line in thickness, and perfectly 
white. In thin cod, which may have remained a long time on a 
sandy bottom, this bladder is found full cf a viscous and yellowish 
matter ^ which forms an agreeable, wholesome, and nourishing 
dish, and is used instead of isinglass, which is here unknown. The 
people engaged as domestics, and who are sent on fishing excur- 
sions, are obliged, by virtue of an ancient law, to prepare the cod, 
extract its oil, and give a proper account of the whole to their 
employer. Such as are dried in the open air upon cords have a 
delicious taste ; though many prefer those that are dried on the 
rocks by the north winds,, which render the flesh wrinkledandhard. 

AMUSEMENTS. 

The amusements of the people in this part of Iceland consist 
of wrestling and dancing, the latter of which is neatly performed, 
and much resembles the Polish dance, From ten to twelve men 
form a ring, and two others stand at opposite sides, one of whom 
attempts to break the chain by passing while in the dance, under 
the arms of the others. On reaching the opposite end, he joins 
hands, and the other then makes the same attempt. This dance, 
when well executed, has a pretty effect. In winter evenings the 
peasantry amuse themselves with reading or singing historical 
anecdotes ; and those who understand the ancient writings, and 
have a good voice, are much esteemed and make a living of their 
•talent. 

OUADETJPEDS. 

The animals of this district being in no respect different from 
those already mentioned, require no detail. With respect to tine 
foxes, it is said, that they steal the birds' eggs from nests that are 
made on the steepest rocks. They go in companies from six to 
ten, and on reaching the top of the rock they wrestle togeiher, to 
ascertain which is the strongest, and him they choose to support the 
others, who follow by successively holding the tail of the one which 
precedes, and thus descend amongst the rocky precipices, where 
the crows deposit their eggs. As soon as the first has got an egg, he 
•gives a cry to inform the others ; on which those that follow him , 

OLAFSEN-] L 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN^S 



draw him up, by moving successively backwards to the spot 
whence they set off. Thus their hunt is iong and difficult; since, 
when one has gol an egg, the animal next to him must perform the 
same manoeuvre, and so on, till they have all been served. Unless 
one were to have ocular demonstration of the stratagem of this 
animal, it would be difficult to give credit to any account of it ; 
since they are obliged to ascend and descend the perpendicular 
rocks by the aid of their paws. It is more probable, that the 
foxes, instead of going in troops, would be cunning enough to 
search alone for such parts of the rocks as are least steep, in order 
to descend to the nests. 

SPECIES OP FISH. 

Having spoken of the manner of fishing, it may be proper to 
specify the different kinds of fish which are most abundant. 
Amongst them are six sorts of cod ; namely, Gadus maximus ; 
Gadus minimus; Gadus dorso tripterigio, ore imberbi; Gadus 
dorso tripterygio, lima later all nigra; Gadus (hngus major) 
dorso monopterygio ore citrato, dentibus acutissimis ; Gadus 
(longus minor) dorso monopterygio, caudd minima rotunda* 
There are besides, in great numbers, the Clupea vulgaris max- 
ima, and the Clupea villosa, vel foztens; the Plevnorectes, oculis 
a dextra totus glaber ; Flesus plevnorectcs, oculis a dextra den- 
tibus obtusis, squamis asperis spina adanum ; P levnorectes', ocu- 
lis et tuberculis 6 a dextra capitis, latere dextro nigro macu- 
laio, maculis rotundis cruceo rubris ; Lwnpus marinus ; Cy~ 
prunes pelagicus ; Perca pelagica ( major) ; Cottus Akpida- 
tus ; Gasterosttus acuieaius, oculis in dorso tribus ; Raja (ma- 
jor et vulgaris) dorso non aculeato ; and Raja aculeata. 

\\ hales and dolphins also are very numerous here ; the latter 
go in troops, and it is asserted that for some time in summer, and 
generally towards the end of August, they become blind. It has 
been remarked, that if they do not lose their sight, their head is 
^so much affected, that in the mildest weather they will suffer 
themselves to be taken, or dart ashore. In ] 744, nearly a hundred 
of this rish assembled in a bay between Oluffsvig and Revet, 
where they w ere all killed : their flesh is of a good taste, but is 
hard and difficult of digestion. With respect to the whale, we 
shall have a future opportunity of alluding to it in detail. 

FORESTS OF BIRCH. 

The annals pf Iceland, and still more the traces that are met 
with in the ditches of turf already mentioned, as well as the lumps 
of petrified wood, sufficiently prove that forests of birch-trees 
w ere once very numerous ; indeed there are several still in existence. 

It would be impossible to deny, that the sea has greatly dimi- 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



ftkshed m this country,, which is attested by experience ; but it yet 
remains to be determined to what degree this diminution has 
taken place ; and there are many of the old inhabitants, who re- 
member certain spots which now contain farms and meadows, to 
have been covered with water. 

SUBTERRANEOUS FIRE OF BORGARHR AUN. 

The combustion at Borgarhraun did not take place till the tenth 
century, when the subterraneous fires burst forth. The Land- 
nama-Saga attributes it to the wickedness of a magician. It first 
appeared at night by a terrible volcanic eruption, which reduced to 
ashes several houses, with all their inhabitants. By this event the 
country was totally laid waste, and covered with black rocks and 
scoria to the extent of three miles from N. E. to S. W. ; and to 
the width of a mile and a half. A great part of the fiery matter 
took its course towards the sea, and formed a number of creeks. 
At the place where the houses were burnt, there is now a spot 
called the Eldborg, or castle of fire, which consists of a very 
high, white rampart, entirely surrounded by black rocks of lava, 
and internally hollowed. At the distance of four or five miles, 
the Eldborg may be taken for a considerable castle ; and it seems 
that on this spot the greatest eruption took place. The Eldborg 
is a small mountain, or rather round, steep, and perpendicular 
rock, presenting an undulated and stratified fagade, in one regular 
mass, without crevices or fractures : it is hollow, and rests at top 
of the volcanic aperture, presenting a slight wall from a foot to 
an ell in thickness. We measured the diameter of the aperture by- 
means of a cord, and found its greatest width to be 636 Danish 
feet, because it does not form an exact circle. This rock is steeper 
within than without ; and is much frequented by ravens, who 
make their nests in it : the interior height, from the base to the 
top, is 169 feet. This wonderful place sesves as a guide to tra- 
vellers in passing the Langfiaerer ; for in dull weather it is easy 
for them to mistake their course. 

INTERESTING REMARKS ON THE INHABITANTS. 

It was between Helgafell and Tor Snaes, that one of the first 
inhabitants of this country came to take up his residence ; his 
name was Thorolf Monstraiskaeg. A temple of idols was con- 
structed at the foot of the mountains, towards the west, near a 
gulph, and its remains are still to be seen, as are the vestiges of 
the pastures and farms which he established. Thorolf and his 
descendants believed, that after their death, they should return 
and inhabit Helgafell ; and from this idea, they directed that all 
their cattle should be left at full liberty : the people were forbid- 
den to drive them out bv force ; but were enjoined to let them 

L 2 



: 



$£AFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



sally out according to their pleasure, and they were particularly 
commanded not to strike them. They consequently considered 
the mountain in question as a sacred place, and no one presumed 
to look at it till he had washed his face and hands. The baili- 
wick of Thorolf was also regarded as a sacred place, and served 
as a hall for the administration of justice. Near this spot, at 
Thiugvalle, is still to be seen their Rlodstein, or sacrificial stone, 
on which they put to death their criminals. They were extended 
across the stone, with the face upwards ; and the executioner, 
after breaking their loins, cut their throat, and knocked thenr 
on the head. W hen private parties had disputes on doubtful 
subjects, they proceeded to HelgafeH to take advice ; for it was 
supposed, that whatever should be decided there, would succeed 
to the utmost. 

At HelgafeH was built one of the first churches erected in the 
western part of Iceland. In 1183, or 1184, the convent of 
Flatoe, which had already existed ten years, was transferred 
thither. This rich convent was secularized at the -time of the 
Reformation, and the ground belonging to it, which consisted 
of a hundred pieces of land, was dismembered, and divided into 
as many portions, on each of which were established from two 
to four farms. Of this convent Glaus Magnus speaks, and as- 
serts, that a considerable quantity of fish was amassed in it, and 
sold to commercial foreigners. 

INNS OF THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF THE COUNTRY* 
One cannot read without admiration, in the Landnarna-Saga, 
of the zeal of the inhabitants of Sneefiaelds-Naes, for the pub- 
lic good. They formed roads, and established inns, at which 
all travellers were received, without paying any thing. The an- 
nals above mentioned, take particular notice of two of these bins, 
which were formerly in this canton. They were founded by two 
women, one named Gerrid, and the other Thara. The same 
order was observed in each : the tables were always well co- 
vered, and ail strangers might eat gratuitously of what they af- 
forded. These matrons used to seat themselves before their 
doors, and solicit travellers to dismount from their horses, and 
refresh themselves. An example of benevolence equally re- 
markable, is that of a man named Soelve, who resided to the 
south ®f the glacier : finding that he could not carry his 
establishment to as great an extent as he wished, in the country 
where he resided, he transferred his property to a place called 
Salvohammer, and laid out a farm on the edge of a road, near 
which all necessitous travellers were obliged to pass. A person 
of distinction founded a similar establishment in the Norderadal, 
beyond the SkagefiorcL This mans name was Thorbrand Oer- 



TRAVELS IN I€ ELANS* 



pek, and Ms building was so extensive, that travellers could pass 
through it with their baggage, arid were furnished not only witk 
provisions, but with any thing for which they might have occa- 
sion. In this edifice there was always a large fire, at which the 
traveller might warm himself, or prepare the food and drink 
which he received. 

EORSERKIA HRAUX. 
This k a large extent of ground, covered with scoria and lava, 
in the vicinity of Helgafell : and on it is a long rampart, con- 
structed of large stones. History relates, that this rampart owes 
its origin to two brothers, on one of whom was imposed the task 
of building it, as the condition of obtaining the hand of a young 
woman with whom he was in love ; but before the marriage 
took place, the young couple were destroyed by a fire ; thek 
tomb may still be seen amongst the lava of Borserkia* 

TROBAAR-UNDUS. 

The annals called Eyrboggia Sagas, mention an adventure which 
took place in this district in 1700, and which, if it had the 
least appearance of truths would be really remarkable ; but these 
annals are allowed to rank amongst the most authentic. It took 
place at the parish of Trodaar, situated to the east of the Gla* 
cier. Shortly after the inhabitants embraced -Christianity, an Ice- 
land lady died suddenly at Frodaar, and ordered in her will., that 
every article which composed her bed, should be burnt, even to the 
curtains ; her husband, however, not willing to destroy such, 
valuable articles, they being very rich and fine, forbade his people 
from touching them. Soon after a pestilential disease broke out 
in. the house, and carried off all its inhabitants one after the other ; ' 
the husband however, with a few of his people, met his end in a 
different manner ; for being at sea in quest of provisions, the 
vessel sunk, and they were all drowned. This adventure spread 
terror throughout the canton ; as soon as any one died, he was 
expected to return, and nothing was talked of but phantoms and 
.spectres. The people used to collect together in the evening 
to talk of the event, and did not separate till the fire had burnt 
out. At last, not knowing to what saint to offer up their prayers, 
they applied to a man of distinction named Snorre Gode, who 
is celebrated in the histories of Iceland, as one of the most 
learned persons in the country. He sent to the house several 
adroit and courageous men, with orders to burn before the door the 
articles in question, according to the will of the deceased ; they 
afterwards assembled, in the same place, a judicial commission, 
according to the ancient laws,, and the spectres were ordered to 



95 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



appear before them ; they were asked, why they quitted their" 
sepuchres to torment the living with similar questions put 
in all due pomp ; after which sentence being pronounced upon 
them, they disappeared for ever. Although this account can 
only be considered as a fable, or reverie, the result derivable 
from it is, that a single man of genius and good sense may easily 
destroy the most rooted prejudices of the ignorant. 

VOYAGES IN THE WESTFIOfiD. 

Our travellers being obliged to regulate their conduct accord- 
ing to time and circumstances, made several voyages in the West- 
fiord, and took notice of a variety of tracts of country along the 
shore, as well as of some little islands, almost unknown to 
foreign navigators ; but which, being mostly barren and uninha- 
bited, afforded nothing worthy of particular remark, except 
two Glaciers, the Glaama and the Drange, which are of a 
prodigious height and extent. The former is situated in the dis- 
trict of Isefiord, and runs in a southerly direction ; while the 
latter reposes on the top of a mass of rocks, between the districts 
ef isefiord and Bardestrand. It takes its rise from a great chain of 
mountains, that form a ridge near the land of Trochyllis,, 
run in a direct line to those of Skorar, and are twelve miles in ex- 
tent by six in breadth, some of these mountains are 300 feet in 
height, and others upwards of 500, as were ascertained by ad- 
measurement, though to the view they appear much higher. 

The district of Dale, a bailiwick in the Westfiord, which con- 
tains" seven tribunals of justice, fourteen churches and six 
parishes, is, incontrovertibly, the finest and best in Iceland. 
Next to this is the Reykholt-Sveit, which contains a number of 
the largest and most remarkable boiling springs in the western 
quarter of Iceland. We proceeded thither to ascertain their de- 
gree of heat, and to observe, whether salt water was not conveyed 
thither, and evaporated, as the sea is at no great distance ; and 
it is not easy to find so convenient a situation for this effect. 
We stopped at three springs near the farm of Reykholt, which 
rise from a hillock about forty feet in height : the water issues 
from numerous veins in a kind of rock ; and the inhabitants fre- 
quent these springs for domestic purposes. The principal of the 
three, called Krablande, has a reservoir only two feet in diame- 
ter, which is in a compact rock, and from which the boiling 
water issues to the height of four feet, making the air resound 
with a harsh and disagreeable noise i it sometimes rises to a 
greater elevation ; but the people, in order to cook their victuals 
more conveniently, have thrown a quantity of stones into the 
basin, which obstruct the apertures. In these springs they 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



87 



cook meat, fish, &c. and it is only necessary to suspend the pot 
over the mouth of the basin for a short time ; the victuals thus 
dressed, acquire more tenderness than by a common fire, and 
have a very agreeable taste. Milk, however, when thus boiled, 
loses something of its proper flavour. 

This spring throws up water for four or five minutes at a time; 
and then ceases for an equal space. We placed a Fahrenheit's 
thermometer in it, for two minutes, and it rose to the 212th de- 
gree ; after which it attained 218 : it even did not stop here, but 
suddenly ascended higher, and then fell with an astonishing ra- 
pidity, as the boiling water became less agitated. At another 
spring, close by that just mentioned, we found that the water 
did not contain a greater degree of heat ; but that wild ducks' 
eggs soon became hard in it. The waters of the third spring are 
highly esteemed by the inhabitants, as an excellent remedy for 
all kinds of diseases, particularly internal affections ; they are of 
such a moderate heat, as to admit of deglutition, when taken from 
the spring ; they are totally limpid, but yet depose a gravelly and 
whitish sediment ; and pieces of wood, plants, &c. exposed 
to their action, become incrusted and terminate by petri- 
faction. 

EVAPORATION OF SEA-WATER BY THE THERMAL 
SPRINGS. 

We did not succeed according to our expectation in evaporat- 
ing sea-water by these springs ; that which we boiled in a well- 
closed iron-pot, began to evaporate at the expiration of ten 
hours ; but the salt deposited was of a red colour. After several 
trials, we were convinced that the water of these springs, as 
well as of several others in Iceland, are impregnated with sul- 
phureous martial vapours, which, in our experiments by ebulli- 
tion, were precipitated. On taking this red salt, after dissolving 
and filtrating it, we obtained a very tine white salt, which proves 
that it is always possible to procure white salt by this process ; 
and it w ould be very desirable for the government to establish 
salt-pits in this vicinity. 

WEATHER PHENOMENA, &C. &C. 

In this part of Iceland the weather is subject to much varia- 
tion. The sea-winds are very frequent and boisterous, insomuch 
as to incommode both men and animals ; while their action is so 
violent on the rocks near the sea, particularly such as have oc- 
casional strata of sand stone, that there may be seen a number of 
holes, which have been excavated entirely by their influence. 
The land-winds, or those from the east in general, are more mild 
Jiere than in other parts of Iceland ; because they lose their vio- 



OLAFSE2? AND 3POTEL3EBS 



Sepce before they arrive at the western point, wheFe they meet 
with the sea-breezes, with which they contest a passage for several 
ffe.ys, and sometimes for weeks together, which abates iheir im- 
petuosity. Hence, the winters are rarely severe in the Westfioard, 
The spi :ng wind*, however, are more inimical to vegetation anil 
to cattle, 

PHENOMENA IN THE ATMOSPHERE, 

There may be seen here, as elsewhere, different phenomena 
m the atmosphere ; but storms do_not often occur, and thunder 
Is only heard at a distance. But, on the other hand, the air fre- 
quently resounds with extraordinary noises, what is called Lap- 
lelltus, and which means aerial fire, appears particularly at the 
"Westhord, and in the northern parts of the district of Bardes- 
trand ; it is only perceived in winter when the sky is rather loaded 
with clouds, accompanied by strong winds .and falls of snows, 
though the upper atmosphere is severe. At such times, during 
the night, the sky seems a mass of tire, or as if lightened inces- 
santly, while the earth, by reflexion^ has a similar appearance, 
The most remarkable aurora borealis occurred on the 25th Janu- 
ary, 1762. The circumstance which gives rise to these lumin- 
ous phenomena, is that the winds blow with impetuosity and re- 
pel into the upper air a great quantity of snow, which becomes 
luminous by the light that remains in the atmosphere, The in- 
habitants, who are ignorant of these causes, are terrified at their 
effects, and take the aurora borealis to be lightning at a distance. 
It is, however, so far dangerous, that it frightens cattle extremely, 
particularly horses, whom it often drives mad, when they run 
wildly amongst the mountains, and meet their death by leaping 
over the rocky elevations. 

Amongst the rocks in this district is a chain called Froellah- 
Iaud, which means mountains heaped up by the giants : they are 
principally composed of basaltes arranged with order, and it 
might be added, with art, since they appear to be only a variety 
of the Saxum BasaUij'orme griseum. The most remarkable 
difference in this chain of rocks is, that some of the strata are 
not more than from six inches to a foot in thickness, and that they 
are disposed in horizontal layers, as compact and even as if they 
had been placed by the most scientific architect, and cut by the 
chisel : each separation at the extremity is from six to twelve 
feet in length. These edifices of nature might be taken for long 
walls of masonry : they extend to nearly two miles across the 
mountains, at the extremities of which they may be seen in the 
gulphs. They also project very far mto the sea^ where there $re 
isles and creeks. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



89 



PETRIFIED WOOD. 

In Iceland real petrifications are very seldom to be met with, 
except where they are produced by subterraneous fires or hot 
springs. There are, however, in the rocks near Bardestrand, 
some vast strata of petrified ebony*. In this spot is an immense 
cavern, which sinks two hundred fathoms into the mountain, 
and in which a small river takes its course. The entrance of the 
cavern is to the southward; and to the west it becomes very 
steep: its height is one hundred and seventy-five feet; and that of 
the mountain, which is composed of different strata of rock, is 
seven hundred and fifty-four feet. These strata, with respect to 
the substance which forms them, are in size and compactness 
very regular, and are parallel with the shore: they are composed 
of rocks amalgamated with ferruginous particles, and intersected 
by light strata of brownish turf, as well as by hard clay mixed 
with sand. The ebony wood (or, as it is called, surtarbrand, 
from the name of the mountain which contains it) is easy to be 
distinguished at a distance, on account of its black colour : it is 
principally found to the left of the entrance of the cavern, above 
the first four stratifications ; and from the best opinion we could 
form, these were about one hundred and twenty-six feet long, 
by two, three, or four in thickness. The uppermost stratum is 
twenty-five feet above the level of the river, and consists of a 
thick kind of wood, in which are many ferruginous particles ; the 
second is better, having a finer grain; but the two inferior strata 
surpass the others, as they are less stony, and not so much mixed 
with heterogeneous substances. 

This singular wood appears again in a grotto in the Forstahl, 
near Arnarfiord. We were induced to repair to this grotto, 
from hearing that it contained a quantity of sea-coal; but 
the substance taken for coal proves to be nothing else than the 
Iceland ebony mixed with a kind of fat and black slate, which 
is very compact. This mass may indeed be used as fuel, but 
it partakes only in a small degree of the quality of the real coal 
found in the surtarbrand. To the left, on a small eminence 
composed of lightly-heaped rubbish, we observed some strata of 
the same kind of ebony ; but they were very thin, and, as it were, 
dispersed by chance. A circumstance however very remakable 
was, that several pieces of wood, fragments of bones, branches 
of trees, and particularly roots of petrified plants, were disco- 
verable at intervals, which had preserved their shape, though we 
observed that they were rather pressed or flattened ; but, on the 
other hand, they had acquired a considerable degree of solidity, 

* Lignum succo minerali msalitum condensatumque ; an ebonum fo$$ih 
Xdandiam, Worm, Mus> lib, I. c^tlj, 
OLAFSEN.J M 



90 



OLAT3EN AIsD POVELSEnV 



There is no doubt whatever that this surtarbrand, or ebony,, 
was formerly a species of wood, and that there consequently 
existed a forest of it in the vicinity where it is found. That it is 
a wood, is evidently proved from its filaments, buttons, and 
branches ; and no one can venture to assert that it is merely a 
sport or production of nature. All that remains to be ascertained 
is, how these forests became the newel of the mountains, or the 
bed on which repose such enormous masses of rock and entire 
chains of hills ; or how their transmutation into so different a 
substance from what this w ood must have been in its origin, 
could have been effected. Many arguments might be brought 
forward in this respect, particularly when we consider the situ- 
ation, height, and component parts of the different mountains t 
indeed this ebony may be found in such as do not offer the least 
vestige of volcanic eruptions ; but in the latter situations it ig 
ranged without order, and the strata are of trivial extent. In 
nearly ail these rocks are found fragments of volcanic strata., 
which have been melted either in part or entirely : these frag- 
ments are accompanied with small lava-pebbles, shore-flints, &c^ 
in strata of vegetable mould. Some of the fragments of lava are 
perceptible in rocks w here there is no petrified wood* as well as 
in those which contain that substance, but they are then commonly 
found in the upper part. We have no doubt that all these ex- 
traordinary effects have proceeded from some terrible subversion ; 
and even that there must have been three successive shocks, each 
of which has deposited one of the strata of wood which may now 
be so distinctly remarked. These shocks, as well as many others 
of equal extent and importance, must have proceeded from fire 
and water excited and put in action by the effects of the air ; 
there must also have been three overthrows, or complete sub- 
versions, in order to accumulate the three enormous masses of 
rock, and to form a colossal w r all so even and wonderful in its- 
structure. 

With respect to the change which this wood has undergone by 
becoming totally black, and in substance like horn, it is wel[ 
known that similar effects of nature have been observed in other 
parts of the world. Mummies have been preserved for thou- 
sands of years, partly by bitumen, and partly by means of 
exsiccation; and in mines and spots that have given way we 
often meet with carcases, wood, and other objects which have 
not undergone the least alteration, because they had imbibed: 
a mineral juice which has embalmed and hardened them, so 
as to preserve them entire as long as they are not exposed to the 
action of the air. It has been discovered, that vitriolic acid is one 
of the best agents for preventing bodies from corruption; and 
the ebony has probably acquired its hardness from being ex~ 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



91 



|?osed to this acid, which exists every where in its vicinity. On 
boiling or burning this wood, we may immediately discover the 
acid with which it is impregnated ; and its black colour is a proof 
of what is here advanced, since it can only arise from the com- 
bination that takes place between the vegetable juices and the 
vitriol, 

PLANTS OF THE WESTERN PARTS OP ICELAND. 

-Among the plants which are seldom met with in the territory 
of Dale, in the western part of Iceland, are the following : 
Epilobium latifolium; Viola tricolor ( Fl. Sv. 721 ) ; Campa- 
nula rotundifolia, foliis radicalibus rotundis, reniformis ( Fl. 
Succ. 176'J,* Cochlearia rotundifolia ; Urtica minor; An- 
geligica Archangelica (Fl. Lappon. 10 I); Imperatoria os- 
truthium ; Plantago latifolia ; Trifolium pratense, flore 
dlbo ; Galium joins quatemis, flore albo ; Saxifraga au- 
tamnaiis; Gnaphalia, divicum, alpinum, sylvaticum (Fl. 
Sv. 572, 673, et 67o); Sibbaldia procumbens ; Aego- 
podium podagearia; Spircea ulmaria ; Echium vulgare; 
Nasturtium prat ense; Viceacracea; Rhodiola; Veronica of- 
ficinalis; Veronica spicata; Holcus odoratus (FL Sv. 70.) ' 7 
Arundo arenaria (Fl. Sv. 102) ; Galium verum, foliis denis s 
tindenis, et duodenis; Galium Aperine (FL Sv. 120J; Trifo- 
lium jibrinum ( Menianth.es trifolia) ; Gentiana autumnalis ; 
Gentiana nivalis; Gentiana verna; et Gentiana pneamo- 
nantlie; Parnassia triglichia (palustre, FL Sv.°98); Epilo- 
bium foliis ovato-acuminatis serratis (fetragonum ) ; Epilo~ 
bium palustre ; Liniuei Poligonum bistorta, foliis lanceolatis 
alter nis; Bnlbi scapi ; Pyrola minor racemosa ; Saxifraga 
opposite ' folia (FL Sv. 359); Saxifraga cotyledon, foliis ra~ 
diccelibus sub rot iuidis,serr uteris cartilagineis (FL Lapp. 177); 
Cucubalis acaulis (Silenc. Fl. Lapp. 185); Ledum annum 
aere (FL Sv. 39U; Dryas octopetala ; Geum rivale; Ra- 
nunculus (nivalis) pygmaus; Ranunculus aquaticus, foliis 
omnibus capillaceis; Bartsia Alpina; Nasturtium aquaticum; 
Hieracium murorum ( FL Sv. 637 )\ Hieracium Alpinum (ibid. 
632); et Hieracium umbellatum, foliis linearibus ( ibid. 639 ); 
Cotula faitida\ Viola (palustris) acaulis, foliis reniformibus 
( Fl. Sv. 733); Osmunda lunaria; Equisetum foliis octagonis; 
Lycopodium selago; et Lycopodium clavatum, cum semine 
sulphuris vegetabilis (Fl. Sv. 859); Lichenes Islandici escu- 
lenti; Tremel la nostock; Urtica magima ( Fl. Lappon 374) ; 
and Sorbus accaparia, and others not worthy of particular spe- 
cification, 



92 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



KEM ARKS ON THE INHABITANTS OF THIS NEIGHBOUR- 
HOOD. 

There is no great distinction to be made between the inhabi- 
tants of the district of Dale and those of the jurisdiction of Bon- 
garfiord. In the vicinity of Breedeliord and the isles the people 
are very active and industrious, particularly in agricultural 
pursuits: they devote their attention much more to the rear- 
ing of cattle than to fishing; but those who live northwards 
from Bardestrand to Cape Horn adopt the latter employment, 
and in general are neither so gay nor so active as the others. 
Such as are in easy circumstances continue to rear a few sheep, 
and in winter make the wool into clothes for themselves, as well 
as into stuffs for commerce. The pooret people, who have 
neither wool, fish, oil, nor fat for their lamps,, are obliged in 
that season to sleep most of their time. Those who reside in 
the western part of the gulf, are very gentle in their manners, and 
disputes rarely occur among them. They are a religious, well- 
informed people, and have a good enunciation. 

On the contrary, the inhabitants of the northern part of 
Arnarfiord are large and ruddy. They are well-made, courageous, 
and much disposed to tight uhen irritated or offended. They 
have retained in their costume the ancient fashion of the coun- 
try, namely, white clothes in the antique style ; those of Onund- 
fiord, situated to the north of the port of Dyrefiord, let the beard 
grow, and also adopt the old mode of dressing. The people 
in the vicinity of Breederiord and Arnarfiord, are much attached 
to the study of natural history, and are well skilled in botany and 
mineralogy. 

At a certain age, the people in this part of Iceland are parti- 
cularly subject to diseases of the chest, which terminate in con- 
sumption : they are likewise much affected with the scurvy, to 
which most of their other diseases owe their origin. In the 
Westfiord violent leprosy is not uncommon: it attacks the head 
and face, which become covered with lumps, and the gums 
swell, though without causing a looseness of the teeth; but it 
is remarkable, that amidst all these attacks, the patient seldom 
feels pain. In this disease an insensibility occurs in all the limbs, 
and the treatment is simply the same as if the complaint was ex- 
ternal. When the patient is interrogated, he declares that he 
scarcely feels any pain, but merely a heaviness of the body, 
which renders any strong exercise disagreeable. The causes of 
this disorder are supposed to arise from the vicinity of the villages 
to the sea, in consequence of which the air is always impreg- 
nated with saline vapours ; besides which, the ground is nothing 
but pure rock, so that the fishermen cannot take the exercise of 
rjdin«\ To this may be added their sedentary life, and constant 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



93 



lying down in winter; as well as their feeding on scarcely any 
thing but fresh fish in summer, and dried fish in the winter sea- 
son: all of which circumstances injure their health. It will 
therefore be readily supposed, that these people cannot arrive at 
a great age : the fishermen never attain more than from fifty to 
sixty years. It is however remarkable, that the women live much 
longer, particularly those who have had many children; which 
probably arises from their never going out to sea, and their tak- 
ing more exercise in the country. 

The houses of these people are much better than those in the 
southern fisheries and near the Westerjoekkel. In this part long 
fragments of whalebone are much employed in building not only 
houses but boats, though these bones are much dearer than tim- 
ber ; but, on the other hand, they will last a century without 
decaying. 

The cabins and drying-houses of these fishermen are much 
cleaner than in other parts; and they do not exhale so bad a 
smell, because the entrails and waste parts of the fish are thrown 
into ditches aud covered with sand. 

One kind of fuel employed here is, marine w r eeds mixed with 
turf and the remains of fish : it however produces but little 
heat, and is too expensive for general use ; their common sub- 
stitute is therefore the dried dung of cattle. 

OF WITCHCRAFT AND OTHER SUPERSTITIONS IN ANCIENT 
AND MODERN TIMES. 

Every person who has read and studied history, is aware 
of the influence of superstition on the manner of thinking, in the 
different people who inhabit our globe. The reader, however ? 
w ill doubtless be amused with some details on the spirit of su- 
perstition which still exists among the Icelanders. — These insular 
people have, from the earliest times, entertained the most ridi- 
culous ideas relative to sorcerers and ghosts; but even more 
enlightened persons in every part of the world have been sub- 
ject to this charge. There are two sorts of magic in Iceland, 
w hich are denominated the black and the white. Under the latter 
name is in general comprised natural magic, which does not de- 
pend upon witchcraft, and w 7 hich the Icelanders rarely adopt ; 
but they understand by white magic, an operation which 
partly consists of natural means, and in which they seek to dis- 
cover wonderful and supernatural events by acts of devotion and 
superstition, accompanied with exorcisms and invocations. This 
kind of magic may therefore, when not applied for evil pur- 
poses, simply excite the weak and credulous man to the fear of 
God, and to consequent acts of piety. This was indeed a sort 
of religious magic used in pagan times, as well as since the esta- 



94 



OLAFSEN AND POY£LSEN ? S 



bhshment of Christianity. From time immemorial, superstitious 
means were employed in Iceland for the cure of diseases. To 
bleed, letting a small quantity of blood, and then closing the 
puncture ; to cure those possessed by exorcising the evil spirits ; 
and for similar purposes, such magic was constantly adopted. 
There was a certain invocation or formula adhered to for each 
respective purpose ; which was accompanied by the ringing of 
bells, the ornamenting of the altars, and the distribution of sacred 
bread, wine, water, incense, &c. 

In more modern times they adopted other methods ; such as 
forming a cross with the fingers, by disposing them in different 
ways : making use of the bread and wine employed at the altar ; 
reciting prayers or psalms, and wearing them in writing on the 
breast : to all of which they attributed curative virtues. We 
find here but few traces of divination ; though there may be re- 
marked some vestiges of chiromancy, and several copies of the 
figures and hieroglyphics which relate to that art. There are 
likewise several ancient writings on astrology ; and the most il- 
literate of the people believe that there is no disease or evil 
which such superstitious juggling cannot remove : they entertain 
similar ideas of the supernatural virtues of certain plants and 
stones, as well as of various remedies derived from the animal 
kingdom. Most of these absurd opinions seem to have origi- 
nated from false translations of foreign books, which were in- 
troduced in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ; and which 
were approved by the clergy, who themselves adhered most ri- 
gidly to their contents. 

Black magic is that which is generally described by the word 
necromancy, as it is supposed to be effected by the aid of 
evil spirits. In ancient times it was much practised in Nor- 
way, but it has not been known in Iceland for more than 
two centuries. It is effected in two different ways, viz. by magi- 
cal characters, and by poetry ; but in great operations they join 
both together. In the histories of Eddtn and Sn. Sturhson, we 
learn that Odin was the first and greatest philosopher of the 
.North; which is confirmed in several other annals, that mention 
all the ceremonies which he practised. These two kinds of magic 
were not merely in vogue in the times of paganism, but existed 
long after the introduction of Christianity. - 

OF THE MAGIC IN THE TIME OF PAGANISM. 

The word Blot signifies, in the North, the religion of the 
pagans. They adored idols, and made sacrifices to them in 
order to obtain their wishes ; and this idolatry was tolerated by 
the laws. The greatest evil was, that they intermixed magic with 
their religious ceremonies. This idolatry was connected with 



TRAVELS IK ICELAND, 



95 



various objects. Disa blot consisted in sacrificing to a goddess 
called Discn, to whom they attributed the power of deciding 
the fate of mortals. Their Aha blot was a sacrifice to the 
spirits of rivers and fields, in order that they might succeed in 
their culture, or that misfortune might fall upon those of an 
enemy. The most ancient and terrible species of magic was 
called Seidur; and was effected by fire, poetry, and singing: 
by this means those who were present, and even absent, who 
were the objects of the mysteries, became as it were bewitched, 
mad, and overwhelmed with misfortune. Sit. Sturleson says, 
that Odin himself disapproved of this vile and dangerous art, 
which could not fail to displease the gods, as well as the moral 
part of mankind. It was after this that they ceased to make 
sacrifices to the idols ; which proves that magic, even in pagan 
times, was held in abhorrence by all persons capable of reflection. 
They particularly detested the Seidur ; and Harald Haarfagar 
caused his own son to be burnt, as well as his partisans, on being 
convicted of having formed a society for practising this art. 
It is forbidden in the most ancient laws of Iceland and the 
North. The ordinary punishment inflicted on those who exer- 
cised it, was to enclose them in a sack, stone them to death, 
burn the corpse, and throw the ashes into the sea. In generat 
they burned the sorcerer or magicians, and scattered their allies 
before the wind ; in order, as they asserted, that they might not 
return to torment the living. For in that time they had belief in 
the appearance of ghosts ; doubtless because Odin boasted that 
his art enabled him to make the dead appear, and that he had 
even learnt in what manner to lay spirits. But it is known that 
these ridiculous ideas likewise took root during the barbarous 
ages in all other nations ; and no person is ignorant of the tales 
about goblins. The more learned men in Iceland at the period 
in question employed themselves in writing on this subject, and 
several of their dissertations still remain. 

OF THE MAGIC IN THE EARLIEST TIMES OF CHRIS- 
TIANITY. 

The magic of the early christian ages was the same as that of 
pagan times, and was practised only in secret : it was in use as 
much in Iceland as in Norway ; and the magicians made choice 
of the few nights that preceded any grand festival, to perform 
their operations. This kind of magic is called in the ancient code 
of northern laws Uteseter ; which means u outside the house." 
Odin himself practised it, and Sn. Sturleson mentions this re- 
markable circumstance respecting it. Those who perf ormed their 
incantations yi the open air were supposed to converse with spirit? 
-who commonly advised them to do ill ° f on which account they 



96 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN'ff 



were considered as culpable as those who exercised the black art,- 
or that whose object was the raising of ghosts and phantoms. 
In the times of paganism, when there was no code of law, the 
proceedings against such as practised the black art were very 
short : they were punished with all possible rigour, but the 
other magicians were not molested. After the introduction of 
Christianity, a scrupulous difference was made between the dif- 
ferent kinds of magic ; and the punishment was more or less se- 
vere, according to the extent of the offence. It appears that 
they knew little in Denmark of either magic or witchcraft ; 
though in Sweden both were prevalent, and the laws against them 
were summary and rigid. The code of laws of the North, and 
of Iceland, prove that magic was generally practised throughout 
those countries, and that a number of malevolent persons exer- 
cised it notwithstanding the existing penalties. It was not till 
towards the middle age that sorcerers and magicians were burnt. 
It will scarcely be credited, that at the period in question many 
women were accustomed to bite or cut off one of the fingers of 
their children from a persuasion that they would thus obtain a 
long life : for this conduct they were punished by a simple fine. 

The punishment of burning was inflicted on those who sacri- 
ficed to or worshipped idols, and on those who pretended to tell 
fortunes, or perform other species of witchcraft; while suck 
as gave them residence, or took their part, suffered the same 
fate. They were also placed out of the protection of the laws, 
by a declaration directing them to be considered as assassins 
who merited death. Any person who exercised magic in the 
way of imprecation or other sorcery, with a view of injuring 
men or cattle, was punished with death; and whoever sus- 
pended certain stones about himself or his animals to operate 
as amulets for the purpose of preventing or curing diseases by 
supernatural effects, was placed beyond the protection of the laws^ 
It was also believed that such a man could not fail to become 
mad by the operation of the evil spirit ; and those who happened 
to be present during similar acts of sorcery, and did not prevent 
them, were subjected to a like punishment. 

In the early ages of Christianity, the law continued equally ri- 
gorous against those who made use of amulets from an opi- 
nion that such charms received supernatural virtues from the 
idols ; but this rigour ceased when the christians themselves 
began to use various stones and plants in their religious cere- 
monies. 

OF THE MAGIC IN MODERN TIMES. 

In the later ages, after the reformation, magic and witchcraft 
seemed to revive, with the superstitious ceremonies which ill- 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



97 



disposed people borrowed from the ancient forms of catholic 
worship : there then arose an ancient species of necromancy, 
notwithstanding all the severity employed to prevent it, and to de- 
stroy every thing which related to its operations. They endea- 
voured to combine with this the pagan system of magic, but they 
failed for want of knowing it : they were, therefore, obliged to 
invent their own characters ; and it was easy for the malevolent 
to use imprecations, and to raise pretended evil spirits, in order 
to produce an effect upon weak minds. The superstitious peo- 
ple gave credit to these projects, and suffered themselves to be 
deluded by such frauds and gesticulations. This kind of ma- 
gicians had greatly increased since the seventeenth century, which 
may be attributed to two well-known causes. The first is, that the 
prejudiced, and the persons in authority in the country, beiug too 
rational to fear such proceedings, endeavoured to maintain the 
opinion which the people at large had conceived of the effects of 
magic, in order to keep them in a state of dependence. In this 
they perfectly succeeded : for they were not only feared, but 
were considered to be greater sorcerers than those who directly 
professed the art of magic. When they perceived that this stra- 
tagem succeeded, they considered that it would be much better 
for the people to retain these ideas ; because this strengthened 
their own power, and augmented the veneration which was paid to 
them. They did not indeed employ themselves with magic ; but, 
on certain occasions, they knew how to give to suspicious cere- 
monies or events a mysterious appearance, from which they de- 
rived advantage : they made the people believe that they had di- 
vined such circumstances before-hand, and that they were so 
well informed in this art as to be able to produce great effects 
by occult means. Others still more cunning asserted, that if 
they examined and interrogated the magicians, it was only for 
form ; since those knew already what those had done, and the means 
they had employed. Thus the people believed that there were 
several kinds of witchcraft, which the learned and people of 
rank were alone able to understand by means of Latin and other 
foreign books. 

In order to give an idea of some of their species of magic, we 
shall begin by that which they call Finskgalder ; which, as they 
asserted, was brought into the country by an Icelandic magician 
who had made a voyage to Lapland for the purpose. This con- 
sisted in possessing a spirit which bore the form of a worm or a 
fly : but the pretended voyage never took place, ft was also 
said that queen Gunnhild and others went to Lapland for the 
express purpose of studying magic, and assisting at the opera- 
tions of the sorcerers. 

-Another kind consisted in interpreting the songs of birds; 

OLAFSEN-] N 



98 



OLAFSEN AND POVE-LSEn's 



which was the magic practised by the great people, particular*/ 
the princes and kings. The crows were considered as the 
birds best informed of affairs of state, and capable of predict- 
ing future events ; but as there are none of those birds inlceland, 
the ravens fulfil this office. They had also a class of magic ana- 
logous to that employed to conjure up the dead. They made 
choice of a friend, or other intelligent person, who promised to 
appear to them after his death, and give an account of whatever 
was interesting : and they considered his first visit a& pregnant with 
danger: The utmost degree of magic however in those times, 
consisted of what they called Karra Kalf: this was the evil spirit, 
who appeared in the form of a calf newly-born, and not yet 
cleaned by the dam. Those who desired initiation in this mys- 
tery, were compelled to perform that operation with their tongue ; 
by which they arrived at a complete knowledge of the art. 

OF THE LAST STATE OF MAGIC IN ICELAND. 
We shall pass over the various ceremonies and different modes 
employed by the modern magicians. The Runnes were always 
the principal agents in their operations, as they were in ancient 
times. They also used other characters, or rather drawings and 
paintings : such, for example, as Aaron's rod ; Solomon's seal ; 
Thor's hammer ; and also the Sprota, a long thin wand, which 
they asserted to possess the power of opening rocks, eminences, 
and mountains, on striking them. This magic wand aiso pro- 
cured the means of conversing with the gnomes. AH these va- 
rious operations were much in vogue in the latter ages, and there 
still remain traces of them throughout Iceland. If a person fell 
sick, it was immediately attributed to witchcraft. There were 
scarcely any houses that were not said to be haunted ; and every 
one believed he saw the dead returning to disturb the living. In 
short, every thing that was bad, whether melancholy, vapours^ 
epilepsy, convulsions, palsy y or apoplexy, was attributed to the. 
manoeuvres of the evil spirit. The priests and people of authority 
endeavoured to destroy this remnant of superstition, but they 
did not succeed : because it was seen that they believed in it 
themselves, and were as much terrified at its effects as the com- 
mon people. It was at last conceived that nothing would do but 
severity of punishment ; and they then began to burn those who 
were thus guilty of no other crime th in a weak mind. As soon as 
a man was accused of having bewitched others, or even animals, 
he was condemned without mercy to the stake. There is no 
doubt that this excessive severity was derived from the Germans, 
as well as from the ancient Swedish laws. Ten persons suffered 
death in this way in the space of thirty years, from 1660 to 16.90. 
Most of these unfortunate people were vagrants ; and- very few 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



99 



of them were convicted of practising sorcery, while there is no 
doubt that several were perfectly innocent. At length the per- 
sons of authority in the country began to see the odious nature 
of the laws in question ; and in 16'QO there was notified to the 
tribunals of the country a decree from the king, commanding 
that the proceedings against every person accused of sorcery 
should be laid before his majesty for revision, previous to pas- 
sing sentence. 

WHALE-HUNTING. 

In this part of Iceland they often hunt the whales in such a 
manner as to drive them on shore, where they are killed. The 
flesh of this fish has by no means a disagreeable taste, but is 
very similar to beef ; and the young whales of the species which 
are good to eat, even have a very delicate flavour. Its fat, 
after being salted down, is used for the same purposes as lard ; 
to which it is preferable, both in point of taste and because it 
will keep for four or live years. 

Although the Icelanders have at their choice many isles which 
afford a great variety of productions, it must at the same time 
be admitted that they are very laborious and vigorous ; and that 
they understand domestic economy in a wonderful degree, much 
more so indeed than many other nations could do if placed in a 
similar situation. They are besides very sober; and clean in the 
preparation of their food and utensils, a circumstance which rarely 
occurs among fishermen by profession. To their praise it must 
be added, that they are very hospitable towards strangers, as well 
As to the inhabitants of the interior of the islands, who come to 
trade with them, or to pass the Gulf of Breedfiord. It fre- 
quently happens that seven or eight strangers meet together at 
one time in the houses of these people, and remain with them 
for a week together, on account of the badness of the weather. 
As soon as they arrive, the generous cottagers dry their clothes, 
and lodge and feed them with the greatest pleasure ; while in the 
evenings they amuse them by reciting historical anecdotes, or 
playing with them at chess, to pass away the time as agreeably 
as possible. When the strangers set off, they constantly refuse all 
kind of payment whatever ; but if they are obliged to undertake 
the passage with them, in their canoes, they then accept of a liberal 
compensation for their labour and time. Hospitality is, how- 
ever, the characteristic of the whole country ; even to such a 
degree, that when a traveller puts up any where for the night, 
they do not require any thing of him either for his supper Or 
his bed. This friendly disposition is carried so far in the juris- 
diction of Bardestrand, that when a stranger enters a house be- 
fore dinner, or in the middle of the day, simply to rest himself^ 

N % 



100 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



with the intention of continuing his journey, he finds it impossl- 
Ible to depart without accepting a dinner. When persons of con- 
dition or those who hold official situations travel in the southern 
quarter, and sleep at the house of a peasant, they give him on 
their departure whatever they think proper. It should finally be 
observed, that the greatest riches of these insular people consist 
in the productions of the country, which they employ for them- 
selves and others. There are very few rich among them ; but 
most of them live at their ease, and very poor families are sel- 
dom to be met with. 

Our travellers now undertook a journey to ! the Hornestrand, 
or along the coast to the North Cape. Near the bay of Kolla, 
at the door of the church, they met with a remarkable ancient 
monument : it was a flat round plate, about two feet and a half in 
diameter ; and containing forty-two characters, which they could 
not decypher, but considered as magical hieroglyphics. In the 
middle of the plate was the figure of a man on horseback with 
cuirasses, and holding in his hand a naked sword.. The horse is 
represented in full gallop, and surrounded with stars : at its feet 
is a quadruped with a long tail, and covered with scales ; it re-* 
sembles an otter, and has several horns on its head. This animal 
is pierced with a javelin, and by its side is the figure of a wo- 
man wearing on her head a bonnet nearly in the shape of a 
crown ; she is prostrate before the cavalier. The words which 
the characters compose are repeated four times, and fill the line 
which forms a circle. The writing seems to denote an ancient 
German dialect of the tenth or eleventh century, or perhaps of 
a still earlier period. Some other figures on this plate seem to 
represent the history of Saint George. 

EXTRAORDINARY HURRICANES. 

On the. 29th August, being near Reykefiord, about half a mile 
from the port, there arose a terrible hurricane, which detached 
from the shore an enormous mass of rock, to which was affixed 
the cable of a ship. The inhabitants in the vicinity attributed 
this wind to the effects of witchcraft ; as there resided near the 
spot a very adroit and sensible peasant, whom they regarded as a 
great magiciail. We amused ourseh;es in talking with him on 
magic and mpematural events : he had no aversion to open his 
mind- to us, and answered all our questions with much frankness 
and sagacity. He possessed very considerable knowledge of the 
different stones and plants in this part of the country. 

in the evening, after the wind had subsided, we heard a 
very loud noise in the air ; which was succeeded by a dreadful 
storm which beat down our tent, and broke the stakes that 
supported it, though they were retained by a number of cords 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



101 



and stones. This hurricane arose in an instant, and subsided in 
the same sudden manner. It was, however, impossible to check 
the ridiculous opinion which the inhabitants entertained ; and they 
continued to believe that sorcery was the occasion of all their 
alarms, notwithstanding our endeavours to convince them that 
the hurricane originated entirely from the state of the atmo- 
sphere. 

DANGEROUS ASCENT OP THE DRANGAR. 

On the 31st August we crossed the Gulf of Ofeig, in order 
to arrive at Drangue, by travelling along the shores ; and on 
reaching Angenaes we had a full view of the tine rock of 
Drangar, from which the glacier takes its name. This promon- 
tory is composed of seven points : those in front are lowest, and 
extend into the sea from east to west ; the four to the east, on 
the contrary, are much higher and very pointed. The mountain 
itself is from three to four hundred fathoms in height,- but the 
Drangar has not by far so great an elevation. A very dan- 
gerous road runs between these mountainous summits ; but the 
inhabitants nevertheless pass along it to go to their church at 
Aarnaes. 

The Drangue-Viig, situated between Eugenass and the Dran- 
gar, is an agreeable country, covered with herbage, and was for- 
merly inhabited : it contains a quantity of timber for ship build- 
ing, and a few islets which are near the shore afford abundant 
supplies of sea-fowls' eggs. 

There is no road which either leads to or crosses these rocks. 
We attempted to climb them, as we were assured by our guide 
that others had succeeded in ascending them on horseback. This 
undertaking, however, was equally difficult and dangerous : for 
we were obliged to go on our hands and knees, and to drag our 
horses after us ; as, though they were accustomed to walk on rocks, 
it was here necessary every instant to assist them, and prevent 
them from slipping or stumbling, which they frequently did in the 
crevices and holes. We were often compelled to get over a kind 
of steps or projections, which were upwards of four feet in 
height. When our horses attempted to leap up them, the bag- 
gage with which they were loaded fell off, and every thing brittle 
which it contained was sure to be broken. — Towards night, how- 
ever, we succeeded in gaining the summit. We found it level ; 
and it appeared like a floor laid with slate, in pentagons and hep- 
tagons: its composition, on the whole, was exactly similar to 
that of the basaltic rocks already mentioned. 

To return seemed to be attended with as much danger as 
pur ascent. The declivity was very steep ; and what rendered it 
more difficult and dangerous was, that we were obliged to per- 



OL A FSEN AND POVELSEN's 



form it in the dark,, and were exposed every instant to vio- 
lent gusts of wind. We were forced several times to carry 
the loads of our horses, to enable them to continue their pas- 
sage : and it was necessary to make a number of windings before 
we could arrive at the farm; which was five miles distant, and was 
the only habitation on this coast. In our way thither, we had little 
more satisfaction or rest than during the disagreeable descent we 
had just performed; for it poured with rain, and the wind was 
exceedingly high. There came occasionally some terrible gusts 
towards that part of the mountain that contained the farm, and 
where we had erected our tent. We heard during the night se- 
veral disruptions ; occasioned by the force of the wind, which 
detached large fragments from the rocks. While the inhabi- 
tants of this farm were relating to us that on such occasions 
considerable masses of stone were separated with a terrific 
crash, we heard a tremendous noise in the direction of the rock, 
resembling the repeated firing of artillery. On looking towards 
the spot we saw a cloud of smoke, or rather dust, rising into the 
air, and which proceeded from a new r excavation in the mountain. 
Every person immediately ran, with a view to save himself, into 
the open fields. Our own people, who had never been divested of 
fear and terror during the journey, asserted, that they saw a mass 
roll from the top of the mountain. At first we could not distinguish 
the cause of the thick cloud of dust that obscured the air: but 
we soon remarked that this fall had taken place directly before 
us ; therefore we could not escape in that direction, and we did 
not know on which side to make off, in order to avoid the dan- 
ger. At length we discovered the place whence the fragment 
had been detached from the rock. The few cattle belonging 
to the farm, and our horses in particular, ran backward and for- 
wards in the field as if they were mad. Happily, this enormous 
mass of stone was propelled perpendicularly from the mountain ; 
and, falling in a direct line upon a rock a little above our tent,, i; 
broke into a thousand pieces. 

PRESENT MODE OF FLOATING WOOD. 

The Icelanders call the present mode of conveying wood 
along the coast by water, Stokafarse; but it is not an advantage- 
ous method, and the passage is dangerous. The inhabitants of 
the district of Isefiord, and the northern part of Bardestrand, 
"make these voyages in large canoes, containing eight or ten men. 
On reaching the coast they make choice of the best timber, with 
which they load their boat; and, making a raft of the overplus, 
drag this after them. When they have a quick passage, and meet 
with no accident, their expences are well paid ; otherwise this 
is not the case, Sometimes their vessels, are wrecked : and 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND* 



105 



they are" not unfrequently, in order to prevent such a misfortune, 
obliged to throw a part of their timber overboard, and to cut 
away and abandon the raft ; for the canoes are so small and 
weak, that they cannot carry a sail in strong winds. But the fact 
is, that from the time when the Icelanders abandoned the praams 
used by their ancestors^ they were in want of wood for building 
their houses and boats, and were obliged to make use of unsafe 
and fragile canoes. 

GLACIER OF DRANGUE. 

On the 5th September we arrived from the Gruna-Viig, at 
Sneefiaelds, where we remained till the 10th on account of the 
bad weather. After a strong wind there came on such a violent 
storm of snow, that we were obliged incessantly to remove it 
from our tent with shoved without which precaution we should 
have been buried beneath it. 

This country is always exposed to considerable falls of snow, 
which take place in summer as well as winter : on this account 
doubtless it has received the name of Sneefiaeldstrand. These 
storms of snow are probably occasioned by the vicinity of the 
glacier of Drangue. We could not but remark the striking 
difference between the countries situated towards the northern, 
and those of the southern part : here the fields and rocks were 
covered with thick snow ; while on the other side there was a 
radiant sun with mild air. From the same reason the coast of 
Sneefiaelds is exposed to the dangerous falling of considerable 
masses of snow, collected on the rocks ; which destroy both men 
and beast, and often carry away entire houses. 

The inhabited part here consists only of a small village be- 
tween the mountain and the shore : it terminates near the 
bay of Lone, which we were obliged to cross during a violent 
hurricane. Here the glacier of Drangue takes its principal base 
in an ascent from the shore ; filing off between two high moun- 
tains, the summits of which cause the glacier constantly to pro- 
pel so much snow to the coast of Sneefiaelds. If we form an 
idea of the extent of this glacier, which is twelve miles long 
by six wide, and consider at the same time that its site is conti- 
guous to the villages and the sea, it will not be surprising that 
it should occasion the frequent recurrence of snow, fog, frost, 
and variable weather. We cannot observe without admira* 
tion how often this glacier is subject to increase and diminution : 
those who reside in its vicinity agree in stating that the ice is 
now to be seen where twenty years since there was a rich and 
verdant soil. The continued winds which have prevailed of 
late years to the east and north-east of the glacier, are the prin 
cipal cause of this increase of congelation. The people in this 



104 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN'S 



district pretend that the ice decreases towards the foot of the 
mountain ; but they do not observe that this change proceeds 
from a thaw, which diminishes its extent towards the fields. The 
tnuddy bottom beneath these heaps of ice is likewise exposed to 
variations : occasioned by the passage of currents of water, which 
carry with them a great quantity of soil, and thus produce a 
vast aperture, through which the rays of the sun can penetrate 
and partly melt the ice; which, thus possessing no longer a suffi- 
cient thickness to support their super-posed mass, often break and 
sink down. 

ON THE PASSAGE OF MASSES OF ICE. 

We cannot refrain from mentioning the conveyance of masses 
of ice from Greenland; since they are often carried as far as these 
roads, and particularly towards Isefiord and the coasts of the 
North Cape, or Cape Nord. We learn by the ancient annals 
of Iceland that this circumstance has always occurred, and that 
irorn it the Isefiord derived its name. Some time afterwards they 
gave the name of Iceland to the whole country, because the in- 
habitants called these masses Hav-Iis. It is incontestable, that 
this ice comes from the coast of Greenland, since every one 
fcnows of the enormous heaps that are formed there. They are 
conveyed towards Iceland by the west and north-west winds ; and 
not only fill all the bays, but also cover the sea to such an ex- 
tent, that from the summits of the highest hills, the extre- 
mities of the ice can scarcely be distinguished. These masses 
are like mountains ; so enormous indeed, that they penetrate from 
sixty to eighty fathoms into the water, and rise several fathoms 
above the surface. This conveyance of ice takes place with 
astonishing rapidity, and is accompanied with a crashing noise 
that may be heard at a distance. The shock of the fragments, 
when they meet together, is terrible ; so much so, that the timber 
which they carry with them often takes fire by the force of the 
friction. These heaps of ice frequently carry off in their course 
little isles and projecting portions of land, as well as masses of 
rock against which they happen to strike. They cause an altera- 
tion in the bottom of the sea near the main land; and disjoin 
promontories, and salient parts of mountains and rocks. When 
they are unfortunately driven up the bays, towards the interior of 
the country, the poor inhabitants are convinced that they shall 
experience a bad year, an excessive scarcity of provisions, and 
every concomitant misery. When a severe dearth is occasioned 
by the heaps of ice which have been propelled towards the shore 
of the northern part of Iceland, the southern districts also suffer 
from it, though the ice does not reach them. 

The north, part of the island is likewise exposed to rigorous 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



105 



frosts, and, at intervals, to moist and cloudy weather : it also 
snows and freezes in the midst of summer. The grass is thin, 
and difficult to dry ; and the cattle are lean, and often shed their 
hair : on the other hand, the inhabitants are very liable to leprosy 
and the itch. We shall mention a remarkable circumstance; 
which is, that as long as the masses of ice are not fixed, but are 
moved backwards and forwards in the sea, the weather remains 
variable and stormy ; while the currents, and the ebbing and 
flowing of the tide, are affected and altered in an astonishing 
manner ; but as soon as the ice is fixed to the bottom of the 
sea, and the waters carry off the detached lumps, then every thing 
seems^ to gain its level ; the weather becomes calm, and the air 
moist and foggy. This conveyance of ice exposes the country 
to other very serious inconveniences : the bears come over on the 
ice to hunt for sharks ; but when it breaks, they are taken by 
surprise, and carried off on the detached lumps. Before, how- 
ever, this takes place, they commit great ravages among the 
sheep ; which obliges the inhabitants to unite in troops to destroy 
them with their lances. These' bears, nevertheless, do not pass 
the summer in Iceland ; but take advantage of the time when 
the ice, driven towards the west of the island, begins to break 
off, and make towards it to reimbark. Much has been said of 
the cunning and instinct of this animal ; and it is asserted, that 
when the ice begins to return, and thus leaves it by surprise, it 
climbs to the summit of the mountains to discover in what di- 
rection the masses are moving off, and immediately swims after 
them. The colour of these bears is generally white, or rusty. 

With respect to the advantages which the inhabitants derive 
from these masses of ice, though they do not always drift on their 
coasts, — these consist in their affording them a quantity of float- 
ing timber, which they convey in their course ; and a number 
or whales, as well dead as living. The latter, being caught with- 
in the fragments of the ice, take advantage to slip out at every 
aperture, in order to respire ; and when they come near to land, 
the inhabitants kill thein with their lances, or with blows of 
the hatchet : but they are obliged to take care not to perforate 
the belly, in which case the whale would sink to the bottom. 
This ice also cdnveys with it a number of sharks, which are 
taken upon the ice itself: for when thus embarrassed, they suffer 
persons to approach them without resistance. The inhabitants 
procure, besides, various other species of fish ; but particularly the 
stock-fish, which assemble and keep near those masses of ice that 
sink deep in the water. These fish always remain with one side to- 
wards the ice, in consequence of w hich they become blind on that 
side ; for on observing them, the eye next to the ice is found to 
be entirely dimned, and covered with a viscous matter- The 

ol afsen.1 o 



106 



OLAFSEN AND FOVELSEft's 



cyclopteri also, when taken near the ice, have but one eye, 
The rapidity with which these masses move in their course, is a 
circumstance very remarkable, particularly when the wind is 
contrary ; and when it corresponds with the current, there is 
no boat in full sail which can proceed with the same celerity. 
This swiftness of motion may be accounted for by the depth 
which the ice sinks in the water, by which it does not preserve 
any great elevation above the surface: hence the current has more 
power over it than the wind. We cannot be less astonished at 
the duration of this ice ; for some masses, when they touch the 
bottom of the sea, remain there upwards of a year, though the 
part that projects above the water soon melts by the heat of the 
sun. When the weather becomes mild, there are at first formed 
in these mountains of ice a number of holes, about six or eight 
feet deep, and wide enough to contain the arm : these holes are 
filled with a limpid water, which ha3 a very agreeable flavour, 
and is excellent for allaying thirst. The reason why this ice does 
not melt easily is, that it is very hard, compact, and contains no 
air-bubbles; while, being collected in very large and thick masses, 
it is preserved by its natural coldness. It also reflects from its 
smooth and shining surface the rays of the sun ; and is continu- 
ally in the sea-water, whirh in this northern latitude is tolerably 
salt. It is likewise very white ; and contains but very few hete- 
rogeneous particles, which would contribute to its solution. On 
examining the clefts in the surface of the ice and its sides, it 
might be supposed to be of a greenish colour ; but tliis arises 
only from the rarified state of the light. There may be distin- 
guished two kinds of ice, which separate from each oilier in 
their course : the first is called Haltu zee, which is even, and 
much thinner than the other, for it is not more than from one to 
three toises in thickness ; so that it appears to have been formed 
in the sea, near the extremity of a glacier. The inhabitants re- 
joice when they see this kind of ice arrive, because it disperses 
and melts in a short space of time. The other kind is the enor- 
mous masses of ice already mentioned ; which are as large ?i3 
rocks, and appear to have been detached from the glaciers where 
they were formed., and where they gradually acquired" their enor- 
mous size. 

There are also many different opinions respecting this ice, but 
all of them are unfounded : we shall mention only two, which 
have been adopted by foreigners and learned men. The first is, 
that this ice consists mostly of saltpetre, and that it might 
be employed in the manufacture of gunpowder. But if 
these persons could procure a piece of the ice in question, they 
would soon be convinced of their error. The other opinion, 
though still more improbable and even ridiculous, has ueverthe- 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



107 



•iess found a number of partisans in an age so enlightened as our 
own ; and what is still more singular, many celebrated naturalists 
mention it in their writings : they say that this ice, and particu- 
larly the large lumps from the glaciers, takes lire, and may 
be used as fuel. We shall merely state, from our own expe- 
rience, that this is false. The circumstance that gave rise to 
this idea was, that a clear flame had been seen to come from the 
ice ; and this happens sometimes in the vicinitv of Iceland, 
where the probable cause has been discovered. It can only be 
attributed to what we have already stated ; namely, to the lumps 
of drifted wood which get between the ice, and take fire by 
the great pressure and considerable friction they experience. 
The ice may be seen at a distance, though the wood is imper- 
ceptible ; and hence the idea has occurred, that it is the ice 
which burns. 

FOXES. 

We have already spoken of the sagacity of this animal, and its 
manner of procuring food ; but the additional tales which we 
heard of it in this part, induce us to resume the subject. When 
a fox perceives that his hole is discovered, he takes the first fa- 
vourable opportunity to retire to another spot. The inhabitants 
of the vicinity then take great pains in watching him night and 
day, that they may kill him as he passes out, and destroy the 
young in the hole. This animal abounds in the mountains, 
where the inhabitants hunt him in winter. In summer he retires 
to the rocks, to feed on birds and their eggs ; while in winter he 
supports himself on the spawn of fish which he finds on the 
.shore, as well as on muscles and other shell-fish. It is very sur- 
prising that he also eats roots; particularly those of the A r undo 
and the Angelica, which grow in the clefts and ridges of the 
mountains. We think however that the foxes which feed on 
these plants must be a different species from the others : the 
people call them Gras-tofur. The shepherds are anxious to dis- 
tinguish this kind, and to prevent their dogs from doing them 
any harm. 

If what is related of the white fox in this part of the country 
be true, his sagacity and instinct surpass every thing. He hunts 
the white water-fowl of the largest species; and in order to catch 
them, he waits till low water, when the bird returns fatigued 
with searching for its prey, and perhaps loaded with food. 
These fowl then collect in troops on a sand bank near the sea, to 
repose and sleep. The fox takes advantage of this circumstance, 
to creep in among them : but to gain them undiscovered, he 
moves gently backwards with his tail erect; so that if the birds 
should happen to wake, they perceive nothing" but the white tail 

o2 



10S 



OLAFSEN AN I) POVELSEN's 



in the air, and take him for one of their own species, When 
the fox gets to them, he seizes those that are nearest, and the 
others fly off. 

These animals sometimes quit the main land -to proceed to the 
isles, particularly those near Breedefiord. They also get upon the 
masses of ice, in order to be conveyed to such isles as are more 
distant ; though this method does not always produce the desired 
effect ; for it often happens that the ice does not stop near the 
isles, but carries the foxes out to sea. We were ocular w itnesses, 
of such a circumstance ; for we one day saw four foxes sitting 
on a rock of ice, one behind the other, the current carrying 
them rapidly out to sea. When a fox succeeds in gaining an 
island, he commits considerable ravages there, and obliges the 
birds to desert it. As soon as the inhabitants find he has landed, 
they collect in the neighbouring isles in canoes (taking advantage 
of the spring, before the birds have arrived) and hunt the fox 
till they either catch him or force him to take to the sea. When 
this animal swims, he keeps his tail in the air as long as possible; 
and as soon as he lets it trail in the water, it may be known that 
he is fatigued. We were assured that they sometimes hunt him 
from hole to hole, till he has been found on the shore motionless 
and apparently dead ; and that after taking him into the canoe 
and landing him on the opposite shore with a view to profit by 
his skin, he has got up and run away. 

FARTHER PARTICULARS OF THE SEAL, OR SEA-DOG. 

The principal species of this animal are those which the inha- 
bitants distinguish by the names of Landseins and U tseler ; and 
the advantages which they derive from it are too important to be 
passed over. 

At Patrickflord they are accustomed to kill it with the gun: 
but the animal in consequence becomes timid and difficult to 
approach ; besides which, they thus frighten the birds, and oblige 
them to abandon the country. Some of the inhabitants of Ise~ 
fiord have therefore resumed the ancient method of killing the 
seals with javelin's or harpoons. They sell at the following prices : 
An U tseler costs four Danish marks when it can swim a little and 
is tolerably fat ; but this price is given principally for the skin. 
The young sea-dogs or seals are sold by weight, principally for 
their fat ; and the price is about five marks for SOlbs., after taking 
out the intestines. An old U tseler is about two ells and a 
half in length. They are savage, and it is dangerous to irri- 
tate them. With the exception of the lard, the remainder of 
the body of all the seals has no fixed price ; but the young Land- 
selurs, after having cast their first hair, and acquired sufficient 
strength tQ swim and feed themselves,, cost a mark. The skins,. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



109 



'when well prepared, sell for as much as those of oxen, cows, of 
rams ; they are, however, rather spongy : they are used for shoes. 
In winter the Landselur contains most fat ; as one of these ani- 
mals then affords from fifty to sixty pounds, but in summer it 
does not give half that quantity. A pound of lard of the best 
quality will furnish half a pint of oil ; but in general not more 
than three or four quarts is derived from a Fwrdung of lard, 
which weighs ten pounds. 

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SEALS. 

The inhabitants relate many anecdotes of the sea-dogs already 
mentioned, and particularly of the Landselur. They say that 
these animals are very observant; aud when they perceive any new 
object on the land, they approach towards it: which has suggest- 
ed to the inhabitants the idea of catching them in two ways. 
They spread nets in the streigbts and bays through which the 
seals pass ; ana then on a dark evening they make a fire on the 
coast with shavings, horn, and other combustible substances, 
that exhale a strong smell : the seal, attracted by the scent, 
swims towards the tire, and is taken in the nets. Sometimes 
these animals are met with at a considerable distance up the 
country, being attracted in a dark night by the common light m 
a house. They are easily tamed : and the people put them, when 
young, into ponds, and feed them daily ; by which they become 
as tractable as a common dog, run about the yard, and follow 
the master of the house or any one else who may call them by 
their name. In some years the seal is almost starved ; when, for 
instance, the winter is severe, fish and insects are scarce, and the 
sea-weed by which they are nourished is carried off by the ice 
and breakers : they are then found so lean and weak, that it is 
impossible for them to escape, and they are easily taken ; their 
fat is consequently wasted, and nothing is found in their stomachs 
but a few marine plants and stones. 

SUPERSTITIOUS IDEAS OF THE PEOPLE CONCERNING 
THIS ANIMAL. 

It is singular that the lower order of people in Iceland have a 
high veneration for the seal, and at the same time an aversion to- 
wards that animal. This doubtless anses from the unfounded 
idea, that it bears a greater resemblance to man than any other 
creature. The Icelanders pretend that it has a wonderful in- 
stinct ; and some extravagant fables they relate of it. The 
seal certainly resembles a dog more than a man, and this has 
doubtless induced modern naturalists to give it the name of 
?he sea-dog. We are convinced of this resemblance from the 
dissection of a couple of seals of the lirst and best-known spe- 



no 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSElVs 



cies : but it 'certainly deserves to be ranked among the most 
sagacious of animals. The aversion which some Icelanders have 
for this animal, is in some degree innate ; for nothing can induce 
them to eat its flesh, though prepared in the best possible man- 
ner, and even disguised so that they could not distinguish it : this 
aversion may perhaps arise from a knowledge that the seal is very 
fond of human flesh; and that it always follow boats and ships, to 
feast on the corpses of those who may be drowned or fall over- 
board. Those seals that have the most hideous aspect, are very 
dangerous when enraged : they light together, making the most 
horrid bello wings ; and when they attack a man, it is seldom that 
he can get rid of them without" losing his life. The bite of a 
mad dog is not more severe : they rise up against a man with 
impetuosity, attack him first with their claws,* and bite him 
wherever they can. They preserve their ferocity even when they 
take to flight, and throw stones at their pursuers with their hind 
feet. When they perceive a man, and the latter does not succeed 
in giving them a blow on the head, they endeavour to seize his 
stick in their mouths, in order to force it from his hand ; and if 
he unluckily allow them time to rear on their hind legs, they 
catch him by the breast, and hold him with such force, that it is 
impossible for him to get free without assistance. 

It is well known, that in ancient times the flesh of the seal was 
in high repute as an article of food, and that it is still so in many 
parts; much, however, depends on the choice of the animal. 
The flesh of the old seal is black ; and that of the Landselur, 
when young, is allowed to possess the best flavour. On killing 
the animal, the blood is immediately expressed, and the flesh 
washed and salted and afterwards smoked a little, when it be- 
comes a relish which is pleasing even to epicures. It should, how- 
ever, be a year old, to possess its proper flavour. We are surprized 
how the Green] anders, who may be said to live on seals, can be 
so active and clever in all their movements; it is equally asto- 
nishing how the Icelanders, who, notwithstanding their aversion, 
are obliged in years of scarcity to live upon the flesh and fat of 
this animal, nevertheless enjoy good health, and preserve their 
spirits and size. All the inconvenience that arises to them is, 
that they lose in some degree their strength., and are not so 
fit for hard labour, 

OF THE MA I? MEN ILL, OR SEA-MAN. 

Many centuries have elapsed since authors first wrote about 
the marmenill. Torfaeus, in his u History of Norway,", says 
that it is met with in Iceland ; and bishop Pontoppidan assures 
us, in his " Natural History of Norway," vol. ii. p. 302, that 
there are several species of it. M. Strocm, in his " Suudmces-. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



Ill 



fchen," p. 287, is very angry with those who will not believe in 
its existence ; and Childrey asserts it as a Fact, that some fisher- 
men caught one on the coast of Suffolk in 1187, and that ano- 
ther was taken in Yorkshire in 1.535. It is said that two have 
been caught in the sea near Iceland : one when the island first 
became inhabited, which is mentioned in the Landnama Saga ; 
and the other in 1733, near Talkknefiord, in the bailiwick of 
Bardestrand : and it is likewise true, that there was found in the 
belly of a shark, an animal that resembled a man. AW those who 
saw it did not doubt for an instant that it was the body of a mar- 
menill, and not that of a human being. M. Wernhard Gud- 
munsen, curate at Ottrerdal, which is situated in the same baili- 
wick, gave us some very circumstantial details of this; and added, 
that if we desired it, he would procure certificates from all the 
persons who had seen it. The following is his account : " The 
lower part of the animal was entirely eaten; while the upper part, 
from the epigastric and hypogastric region, was in certain places 
only half devoured, but in others entirely: the sternum or breast- 
bone was perfect. This animal appeared to be about the size 
of a boy eight or nine years old, and its head was formed like 
that of a man. The anterior surface of the occiput was very 
protuberant, and the nape of the neck had a considerable inden- 
tion or sinking. The alee of the ears were very large, and ex- 
tended a good way back. It had front teeth, which were long 
and of a conical form, as were also the larger teeth : the eyes 
were like those of a codfish. It had on the head long, blacky 
and hard hair, very similar to the Fucus filiformis ; this hair 
hung over its shoulders. Its forehead was large, and round at 
top. The skin above the eye-lids was much wrinkled, scanty, 
and of a bright olive-colour ; which indeed was the tint of the 
whole body. The chin was rather cleft at bottom ; the shoul- 
ders were very high, and the neck uncommonly short. The 
arms were of their natural size, and each hand had a thumb and 
four fingers covered with flesh. Its breast was formed exactly 
like that of a man, and there were to be seen something like 
nipples {papilla) ; the back was also like that of a man. It 
had very cartilaginous ribs ; and in parts where the skin had been 
rubbed off, a black and coarse flesh was perceptible, very simi- 
lar to that of the seal. This animal, after having been exposed 
about a week on the shore, was again thrown into the sea." 

This is the history of the marmenill or sea-man in question. 
If we reflect on the change which an animal undergoes on re- 
maining some time in the belly of a shark, whose propensity for 
human flesh is well known (as entire corpses have been found in 
its body) ; when we recollect, that in a short time this fish can 
travel a vast distance, and suddenly convey itself from one shore 



112 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN ? S 



to another ; and lastly, however little we consider that the ima- 
gination represents every thing very different from what it actually 
is; we are almost induced to believe that this thing was a man. 
But; on the other hand, if the description be exact, it will be 
observed, that neither the hair, teeth, nor fingers, resembled 
those of the human species. It must also be remarked, that the 
inhabitants of Iceland always scrupulously collect and decently 
bury the corpses or limbs which may be either thrown ashore by 
the tide, or found in whales and other large fish ; and hence, 
those who saw the animal in question would have made much 
hesitation in leaving it on the shore for a week, and afterwards 
throwing it into the sea, unless they had been convinced it wa& 
not the corpse of a human being, 

FARTHER PARTICULARS OF THE WHALE. 

Whales formerly frequented the western coast of Iceland m 
great numbers ; but from the seventeenth to the eighteenth cen- 
tury, the Spanish and French fishers pursued them so . eagerly, 
that they are partly destroyed, and the rest have emigrated to- 
wards the North. Those whales which afford a good food, 
viz. such as have pieces of horn instead of teeth, and those with, 
the venter plicatus or plaited belly, are now tolerably well 
known ; because the fishers do- not care for these species. With 
respect to the whales with teeth, or those of prey, it is certain 
that there are many species in the northern seas, which are still 
unknown to foreign naturalists, because they are not caught by 
the whale-fishers ; and because, even if these wished to take them, 
they could not succeed, on account of their extreme agility. 
The Icelanders, however, are very elaborate in their descrip- 
tion of these fish ; but all their accounts are so confused and 
vague that they cannot be relied on. 

Among the species well known to the inhabitants, and most 
of which have been described or mentioned by naturalists, is the 
Balana dorso impenni of the moderns, which is more corn~ 
monly known by the name of Baltma vulgaris et Gr&nlan- 
dica ; but this is now seldom found, except on the coast of 
Greenland. They eat its flesh, which is very similar to beef, 
and when young is particularly white and delicate. The next is 
the Balana tubere pinniformi; or, as other writers call it, 
Bal&na pinna adiposa in extremo dorso : this species is now 
very rare in Iceland. The kind first mentioned is upwards of 
two hundred English feet in length, and the latter from one hun- 
dred and forty to one hundred and seventy. 

Of the whale without teeth, or the Bal&na ventre plicato, 
there are several species known to the Icelanders ; who eat their 
flesh, which is intermixed with fat^ and has a very delicate taste ; 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



113 



Ibut the Greenland fishermen do not search after them, because they 
contain less fat, and have none at all in the belly. To this class 
also belong the Balana maxima ventre plic.ato of naturalists, 
and the Muscidus of Linnaeus ; which are driven to the coast of 
Iceland from the sea, when the intrepid mariners of the western 
quarter attack them in the gulphs at a great personal risk. The 
other kinds are Balccna media, ventre plicato, pinna brevi 
acuta in medio dorso; Bal&na minima , rostro longissimo et 
acutisshno ; Delphinus, (minimus), ventre protracto ; and Del" 
phinus (maximus) pinna in medio dorso majori acuminata. 

There is a species of whale at which the Icelanders are much 
alarmed on its approaching their coast : they call it the Illhvele, 
or ill-disposed whale ; and assert that this species is so vora- 
cious, that it takes whole boats with their crews into its 
mouth, destroys the vessels, and swallow's the men alive. These 
whales are said to be so greedy after human flesh, that when they 
have caught a man in any particular spot, they will wait there a 
whole year in the hope of devouring another. Hence the fisher- 
men take great precaution to avoid those parts in which they 
recognise this species, and do not return to them. The greater 
number of those met with in the open sea, belong to that just 
described; and the ancient laws of Iceland, particularly the eccle- 
siastical laws, forbid the eating of them : the species appears to be 
the Unicornu marinum. This fish is seldom seen near 
Iceland, but its valuable horn is often found on the coast. The 
*' Speculum Regale/' p. 130, asserts, that it avoids man. 

CURIOUS ANECDOTES OF BIRDS* 

Our travellers paid very minute attention to the different spe* 
cies of birds found in this part of Iceland : because the gulphs and 
creeks abounded in a variety of water-fowl ; the hunting of which, 
as has been already stated, forms a principal branch of the em- 
ployment of the inhabitants. Among the species most nume- 
rous are the tribe of geese, ducks, and pelicans ; all of which have 
been previously described. The mountains are inhabited by va- 
rious species of the Alea ; and the Icelanders, in their endeavours 
to catch them, often forfeit their lives. Sometimes they go in 
companies of two or three together, and assist each other in 
climbing to the summits of the mountains, whence they fre- 
quently fall and are dashed to pieces ; while others proceed along 
he base of a mountain which is washed by the sea, till they 
are overtaken by the tide. It is inconceivable to a stranger how 
these men can find the way back : indeed they often take the pre- 
caution of travelling by the aid of a line from thirty to forty 
fathoms and upwards in length. When two go together, and gain a 
.mountainous height, one holds the line at the top, while the other 

olafsen.] p 



114 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEX's 



searches below. Another method is to let themselves "do <Vn hy 
a strong -line, made with from four to seven thongs of ox-hide ; 
which not only supports the weight of a man, but likewise of all 
the birds he can take : and five or six men remain at top to lower 
or draw him up. 

We had some difficulty to believe the account of Debes, p. 1 38, 
relative to the removal of the young diving-fowl from their 
nests ; for, according to him, the old hen carries them on her 
back: but as we had never seen any thing of the kind, we took 
particular pains to inform ourselves of the fact. In the first place, 
most of these birds fly too heavily, and their wings are too short, 
to carry their young; which are very fat, and nearly of their own 
size. The following particulars, however, may be relied on : — ■ 
As soon as the young has moulted, or changed its first down, the 
old one cea>es to bring it food ; but nevertheless continues to 
visit the nest, and exercise its wings before it, to induce the young 
to fly. At length the latter, perceiving the old bird to dart with 
vigour in the air, and impelled by hunger, approaches nearer and 
nearer to the extremity of the precipices : and here we are 
obliged to admire the infinite wisdom of nature, which has 
given the old birds an instinct that informs them their young 
have not sufficient strength, agility of limbs, nor size of wings, to 
enable them to fly through the air; hence they carefully watch 
the moment when the young bird first attempts to fly. The old 
hen and cock then drop below it, and extend their wings in such 
a manner that the extremities nearly touch each other : the young 
bird does its best, but falls backwards and forwards on account of 
the shortness of its wings. As soon as it is in a train for flight, 
the old ones cut through the air, scarcely moving their expanded 
wings, and direct their course obliquely towards the ground : 
during which time they let the young bird support its neck upon 
their united wings; and their bodies behig at a sufficient distance, 
it has room to move its own. It is curious to see this family 
arrive in the water, which is then covered with birds of the 
same species : for they all endeavour to prevent the novice from 
failing in ; and, receiving it with great noise, give it a place among, 
them, and accustom it to swim. The duration of the life of 
these birds is unknown, as is likewise the age at which they begin 
to propagate. When the old bir* s descend to the plains for the 
first time in spring, they are always accompanied by their young; 
which the people endeavour to catch, because they are very fat 
and delicate. 

There is a very high mountain in this district, which is much fre- 
quented by the birds in question; and has the following remarkable 
peculiarity, as can be testified by all the inhabitants of the neigh- 
bourhood; When they approach it in a boat, in search of birds, or 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



115 



for other purposes,, so near as to be immediately below it (for it is 
almost perpendicular, with fragments projecting in many parts) 
they are obliged to be cautious not to speak loud or make 
any noise ; for this always causes the fall of lumps of stone of 
different sizes, which the simple people suppose are thrown at 
them by evil spirits : it is certain, however, that this effect is produced 
by the sudden motion of the air ; as the mountain produces so 
strong an echo, that the fall of a small stone makes as loud a 
report as the discharge of a cannon. When it happens that a man 
or sheep falls from the mountain, it is asserted that the belly 
bursts open and the intestines come out during the descent; but 
what is still more surprising is, that when a horse falls, its iron 
shoes come off before it reaches the ground, and the crooked 
nails in them are found to be straight. The younsj birds also 
fall from this mountain in considerable numbers, and the people 
of the country come in boats at low water to collect them; but 
as the tide is here very violent, they sometimes cannot reach the 
spot till after intervals of several days, when on their arrival they 
find the dead birds lying in heaps in a state of putrefaction. They 
then carry off for eating those which have last fallen, and strip the 
rest of their feathers. 

The other species of birds, of which our travellers noticed 
great numbers in this part of the country, were Larus collo et 
pectore a Ibis, supra bruno et albo variegatus ; Procellaria (a 
kind of storm-bird, according to Linnaeus); Larus albus (maxi- 
mus), dorso et alls sitperius nigris; Larus albus medius et vulga- 
ris auctorum; Larus albus, apicibus pennarum aibis; Sterna 
fusco-alba, rectricibus mediis longissimis nigris; Sterna 
alba, capite supra nigro, fyc. Linn.; Tetrao (versicolor) 
rectricibus albis intermediis nigris, or Lagopus auctorum; 
Tardus minor ; Haematopus Linncei; and Pica marina 
Bartholin!, Among the birds of passage they particularly 
mention the following, with which the Icelanders were well 
acquainted: Numenius (major) rostro arcuato, maculis fuscis 
ihomboidalibus, fyc. ; Triuga cinereo-fusca, macula in dorso 
violacea; Charadrius nigro et luteo variegatus, pectore nigro ; 
Charadrius nigro lutescente variegatus pectore macula nigra, 
fyc.'; Charadrius (minimus) cinereo et fusco variegatus, fyc. ; 
Tetrao (versicolor) rectricibus albis, intermediis ?iigris; La- 
gapus auctorum; Tardus, alis subtus ferrugineis, linea supra 
oculos albicante; Tringilla remigibus albis, primaribus extor- 
sum nigris, rectricibus nigris, fyc; Motacilla pectore nigro; 
Motacilla dorso cinereo-ccerulescente, fronte alba, fyc. ; Mo- 
tacilla fusca, cauda surgente ; Hirundo nigra, gala albicante; 
and Passer colore bruneo, fronte fcrrugmca, 

? 2 



I 



116 OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 

INSECTS. 

There has hitherto been but little information obtained of the 
insects that exist in northern countries; and it has been even 
asserted that few are to be found in Norway, and in Iceland 
none at all, in consequence of the cold which prevails there. 
Horrebow and Linnaeus have, however, proved the contrary: and 
in Iceland rhe people are acquainted with several. AVhen our tra- 
vellers passed through the island, being on horseback, and the 
season being intemperate, they had but little opportunity of 
attending to this branch of natural history; but when M. Olafsen 
was in Iceland in the year 1760, he made a collection, and 
in one small valley found upwards of two hundred species. He 
afterwards classed and arranged them; but he justly observes, 
that, " though insects excite our curiosity and admiration by the 
minuteness of their conformation, the distinct and singular organi- 
zation of their parts, their metamorphoses, economy, &c.; yet 
such details, however interesting to the philosopher, are neither 
useful nor agreeable to readers in general." In the present work 
the authors consequently confine themselves to such as are most 
remarkable for their useful or injurious qualities. They divide 
them into the six classes of Coleopterous, Hemipterous, Lepi- 
dopterous, Hymenopterous, Dipterous, and Apterous. In their 
descriptions they incorporate the remarks and opinions of the 
Icelanders on the different species; but as these contain nothing 
interesting, we shall, for the information of the scientific reader, 
merely insert their names and characteristics. They are the 
Der?nestes tomentosus ovatus, auratonebulosus, or Hamisphceria 
Hillii; Carculio abdomine ovato niger, colcoptris striato gra- 
nutatis; Thaphylinus pubcscens niger, or Maxillosus Linncei; 
Dytiscus nigro-bruneus extremo abdominis ulbido ; Scarabceus 
(vulgaris niger) Scarabceus thoraci inermi negro elytris rubris 
or Scarabceus jimetarius Linncei ; Phalcena (maxima) colore 
obscure sericeo pallescente, fyc; Phalcena tota aurea, punctulis 
nigris conspersa ; Teuthredo aculeo crasso ; Ichneumon niger ; 
Apis hirsuta nigra, the Apis serrestris Linncei, and Bombylius 
auctorum. I'ipula (maxima) alis hyalinis dilute fusca,§c; Tipula 
lutea alis albis, in sedendo orectis ; Tipula nigra subvirescens, 
alis hyalinis non punctatis; Tipula nigra subhirta, alis hyalinis 
pedibusferrugineis; Musca (variegata) thorace nigro, nitente 
abdomine virescenti,S)C. ; Musca hirsuta lutea, puncto alarum 
fusco; Musca gibba, capite albo, luteo et viride variegato, cor* 
pore aureo; Musca aurata, thorace nigro, abdomine cairules-* 
viridi Linncei; Hippobosca ovina, alis nullis; Pediculus 
cdpite et thorace rubris, abdomine cinereo-albido; Pediculus 
(aha arctica) e cinereo c&mlescens ; Pediculus capite fusco , 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



117 



abdomine glauco\ Podura tola argenteo-aurata, lanuginc 
supra cazrulea, 6^c. ; Podura obscure cairuka, antennis crassis, 
£$c; Acarus albus corpore spinoso; Acar us petr arum ruber ; 
Aniscus fuscus, crusta carinata macula in thor ace alba ; and 
several varieties of the Aniscus niger. 

EXTRAORDINARY ROCKS. 

In this part of the country there are a number of rocks, orlarge 
masses of stone of a spherical form, which are heavy, com- 
pact, and frequently ignescent : they may be seen in all the 
mountains of the western quarter, and their spherical surface 
appears as if rising out of the summits of the mountains. Some 
of them are two, four, and even six fathoms in dia- 
meter. Nothing is more singular than this spectacle, since it 
cannot be conceived how these rocks have attained their situation* 
They have every appearance of having been moved from some 
high spot; though there are no mountains near them more ele- 
vated than those on which they stand, while no inundation, how- 
ever considerable, could have had the power to move them: so that 
we can only suppose that they were always in the same situation, 
and that the earth which once covered them has been carried off 
by water. It is, nevertheless, possible that a great overflowing 
of the sea, together with the large quantities of floating ice con- 
veyed from Greenland, may have thrown the masses of stone to 
the height at which they are seen; since it Is known that the 
force of such causes has carried off small peninsulas,, rocks^ and isles. 

POPULATION OF GREENLAND. # 

The Landnama-Saga and other ancient histories contain an 
account of the first establishments formed on this coast, which 
took place at a very early period, and the isles soon became 
fully inhabited ; but their population was considerably diminished 
by the removal of a colony to Greenland, though historians erro- 
neously assert that that country was originally peopled by the 
Norwegians. It is nevertheless true, that Eric the Red was a 
Norwegian, born at Joederen: but he did not go thence directly 
to Greenland ; having previously come with his father to Iceland, 
where he passed a great part of his life, and he was still young 
when his father established himself on the coast of Cape Nord» 
Before this time Greenland was discovered by a person named 
Gunbiorn Ulfsen, in the same voyage during which he found the 
rock called Gunbiom-Skiair. His account gave Eric the 
Red the idea of proceeding thither, on his being obliged to 
quit the former country for a homicide which he had committed. 
At this period, which was about the year 982, Iceland had been 
inhabited upwards of a century, Greenland was not occupied 



1!S 



©LAFSEN AND POVELSeVs 



till three years afterwards; because in that Interval Erie returned 
to Iceland,, and boasted much of the country he had visited. The 
narrative of Eric produced such an effect on the inhabitants of 
^ estfiord and Borgaraord, that in the year 986 they embarked 
in twenty-five vessels for Greenland : but being unfortunately over-* 
taken by a storm, only fourteen of the ships reached their desti- 
nation; the others were partly lost, though some put back to 
Iceland. The new settlers increased rapidly, so that in a short 
period there were two hundred and eighty farms in the western 
and eastern parts of Greenland. On comparing this population 
however with that of ancient Iceland, it is found not to equal 
one-third of the smallest canton in the latter country, according to 
the survey of bishop Gitzur. 

NORTHERN QUARTER: 

Our travellers;, on entering the districts of Hunevand, He- 
grencessvadle, and Thingoe, inform their readers, that as the 
system of investigation they pursue renders repetition so frequent 
as to become tedious, in consequence of the same objects re- 
curring in every quarter of the country, they intend in future 
to be very brief in their descriptions of the remainder of their 
journey, and to mention only such circumstances as are peculiar 
to each district. 

It appears that on their first arrival in Iceland they began their 
journey from the southward, quitting the chain of mountains that 
extends across the isle from east to west, and intended to go by the 
road which leads to Skagefiorden, about twenty Danish leagues 
in length # : but when they reached the midst of the mountains, a 
violent storm of wind and rain came on; which continued with such 
fury that they lost their way, and wandered for three days about 
the mountains,' exposed to the inclemency of the atmosphere, 
without food either for themselves or their horses. They were 
obliged, at the risk of their lives, to cross several large rivers that 
proceed from the glaciers ; and through which they were forced 
to wade and lead their horses, which had lost their shoes, and , 
thus wounded their feet. At last, after encountering inex- 
pressible difficulties, they had the good fortune to fall in with a 
road that led them to the canton called Oetiord; whence, after 
remaining a few days,- they resumed their journey across the 
district of Thingoe, northwards to Tiorness, and the volcanic 
and sulphureous mountains in the vicinity of lake Myvatn. Some 
time afterwards they undertook another tour to the north of 
Iceland : by going first through the district of Dale, as far as the 
gulf of Rntefiord, which separates the divisions, and the north. 

Hftsen of these leagues make one degree of the equator. -Edit. 



' "TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



119 



shore of which forms a part of the northern quarter. Their 
observations on this quarter are the result of the different journics 
specified. 

The northern quarter is generally reckoned as one-third of Ice- 
land : but this it cannot be in point of extent; for if in the western 
quarter we comprise the inhabited mountains, this alone would 
be almost as considerable in size as one-third of the island, while 
the eastern quarter would be rather larger. In respect to culture, 
it is certain that the northern part is of far greater importance 
than, any of the rest, as well as the next in point of population 
to the southern; nevertheless, the number of inhabitants in 
the northern portion does not form one-third of the population 
of Iceland. The site of this quarter is very flue ; and agreeably 
intersected by gulphs, vallies, promontories, and little defiles 
that run between the mountains: and there are several isles 
along the coast, some of which are very fertile, but others do 
not afford herbage sufficient for the cattle they contain. There is 
an isle called Flatoe, which lies a little to the eastward of the 
point of Giogre, and is very important as a fishery. In the year 
it contained four farms, or habitations of peasantry, all of 
which were destroyed by an earthquake. The fish at this and 
three other isles near the port of Husevig are so abundant, that 
the inhabitants make an annual trade of them: they Jive, how- 
ever, themselves principally upon sea-fowl, which are very nume- 
rous ; particularly the Larus albus extremitatibus alarum nigris, 
and the large Peterell. This latter bird contains in its intestines so 
great a quantity- of oil* that it ejects it, when irritated, . from its 
body. Hence, when the inhabitants catch it, they take the pre- 
caution of tying its Xwo extremities with a packthread, to prevent 
the oil coming out. They prepare this bird for their winter 
food, by half-salting and drying it : they eat its fat with cod-fish 
in lieu of butter; while its feathers, particularly those that come 
from the belly, are so oily that they serve for kindling a fire,, and 
thus occasion a disgusting stench. 

DISRUPTION OF MOUNTAINS. 

These events often cause very terrible misfortunes in the can- 
tons to the east of the gulf of Skagefiorden, and in that of Nor- 
deraadal; but the inhabitants of Vatsdal in particular have suf- 
fered much from those shocking disasters, the last of which 
occurred in 1720. A dreadful fall took place in 1545, which 
annihilated the farm of Skidestad, and buried thirteen persons; 
the torrents of water which were precipitated from the fractured 
mountain carried off a great portion of the meadow ground be- 
longing to the farm, and conveyed it a considerable distance to the 
eastward. It is doubtless impossible to give directions for guard- 



120 



OLAFSEft AN# POVELSEft*S 



ing against such fatal accidents; nevertheless we shall commutiP 
cate our opinion, which may be useful with respect to the 
ordinary disruptions that occur almost every year. The inhabi- 
tants, who pretend that there can be no remedy for these mis- 
fortunes, have neglected the precautions that were taken by their 
ancestors ; such as high inclosures, or stone walls, raised to stop 
the progress of the fallen masses. These walls were composed of 
two parts, which met and formed an acute angle opposite to the 
crevice of the mountain, where it was supposed the fall would 
take place: this angle was very thick, and constructed of the 
largest stones that could be procured; the walls were continued 
on the two sides of the angle, and formed two arcs of a circle, 
the extremities of which ascended obliquely to the foot of the 
mountain. The angle had a coating of stone within and 
without; and the two walls which formed it diminished gradually 
in strength from the point to their end. For a long time these 
walls were carefully repaired every year ; even when the. fall had 
been so great as to cover a large portion of the soil, and 
destroy many houses : and when the fragments that fell were so 
considerable as to form a hillock at the base of the mountain*, 
they increased the hillock and made it serve as a wall, to secure 
their habitations from the effects of similar accidents. 

REMARKABLE RIVERS, LARES, &C 

In the northern quarter there are a much greater number of 
rivers and lakes of fresh water than in the western part, and they 
all afford abundance of tine salmon and trout. There is a lake in 
the canton Olafsriord, in the district of Vadla, which is well 
worthy of attention from the remarkable circumstance that a 
variety of sea-fish, and particularly the cod, are naturalized and 
abound in it. In winter the inhabitants break holes in the ice, 
through which they pass their lines, and catch these fish by the 
hook. In the spring it abounds in trout : and the sea-fish taken 
in it have a most exquisite taste, very different from that of the 
same species caught in the sea; from which the lake is only sepa- 
rated by a kind of jettee, formed of the mud and surf of the shore, 
and heaped together by the impetuosity of the waves. The river 
that descends into the lake has formed a narrow passage over this 
bank into the sea. The lake is about a Danish league in length: 
and it is very evident that it has been separated from the sea by the 
effect of an earthquake, or subterraneous fires; that the same revo- 
lution first formed the bank, and enclosed in it the species of sea-* 
fish that it now contains; and that the river which empties itself 
into it, by gradually depriving the first water of its saline quality, 
naturalized the fish that.it contained, and which afterwards bred 
in it. , 



TRAVELS 1M ICELAND. 



121 



The largest lake in all Iceland is that called Myvatn, and it 
contains the greatst abundance of trout. 

From time immemorial, the Icelanders in the vicinity of this 
lake have had no other means of obtaining a living than by fishing 
here for trout. Each peasant has his boat with ten or a dozen 
lines, that are from ten to thirty fathoms in length : these lin*s 
are made by the women, who spin hemp into very tine threads. 

HOT AND ROILING SPRINGS. 

In the district of Hunavatn there are two hot springs. We 
visited the first, which is called Reykehver ; and on immersing 
Fahrenheit's thermometer in it, we found that in three minutes the 
spirit of wine had attained the 204th degree. Our people hav- 
ing brought from a neighbouring river a lump of fresh salmon, 
we suspended it in the water by means of a stick placed across 
the orifice of the spring; and in eight minutes "we found it per- 
fectly dressed and excellent for eating : it w as even more tender 
than if it had been boiled over a fire. The two brass hydrometers, 
which the Royal Society had sent us, sunk in an instant to the bot- 
tom. The other spring forms a bath which the inhabitants con- 
stantly use; and they assert, that when the heat of the water 
increases in this bath, it is a certain sign that the weather, though 
clear and serene, is about a change, and that rain will speedily fall. 
This observation is applicable to all the boiling springs in Iceland. 

OF THE HVEREVALLE, OR BELLOWING HILL. 

This hill, so famous throughout Iceland, rises from the top of 
the mountain of Kioltield, and to the westward of the road. We 
had often heard the most wonderful though very unsatisfactory 
accounts of it ; since none but the shepherds and herbalists had apr 
proached near it, on account of the quantity of lava and nume- 
rous marshes, which rendered all access to it difficult and danger- 
ous. We were informed that the most dreadful roarings pro- 
ceeded from the hill and could be heard at a great distance; which, 
together with many other particulars not less surprising, induced 
us to visit it. On the 18th of September, as we passed in view 
of it, we discovered at a distance a thick smoke that pro- 
ceeded from it, and rose to a great height in the air. When we 
came within the distance of a quarter of a league, we saw 
distinctly that the smoke was exhaled from three different places; 
and heard from afar a noise resembling the roaring of a lion, but 
accompanied with a whistling that sounded in a manner the most 
piercing to our ears. Our horses were scared, erected their ears, 
and it was with considerable difficulty we could make them ad- 
vance. At last we were even obliged to dismount and leave them 
at some distance, and perform the rest of our journey o» foot . 

QLAFSEN.J 9 



©LAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



The first object that arrested our attention was a white, round, 
little hill, from which the smoke issued with impetuosity by three 
narrow winding apertures that occasioned the whistling. These 
openings were about two inches in diameter. The borders 
were of a red colour, mixed with white and green. We endea- 
voured to sound them, but were unable on account of their sinu- 
osity. The little stones which we threw into them were instantly 
forced out, and the flat stones with which we attempted to cover 
the mouths of the apertures were immediately driven away by the 
pressure of the smoke. While we stood near them it was im- 
possible for us to hear ourselves, even when calling out as loudly 
as we could. In other respects Hverevalle is a large valley full 
of herbage, and might be inhabited were it not for its height and 
its position. On the north of the glacier of Bald Jokul, we saw 
several swans swimming near the hill, and in a rivulet that 
flows at no great distance we observed some trout. The ground 
here is never frozen in winter ; on account of the subterraneous 
fires, the heat of which we sensibly felt. Near the hill are 
three large hot springs, where we perceived a great number of 
petrifactions: the middle one is the most impetuous, as it propels 
the water to the height of seven feet. But an extraordinary cir- 
cumstance peculiar to all these springs, and which no others in 
Iceland possess, is that a brilliant, fine, and hard crust is formed 
at its surface, which resembles porcelain, and at a short distance 
produces an appearance similar to a coating of ice. In this vi- 
cinity we observe the ordinary variations of the petrefactis 
tophaceis and the bolis thermarum, in their different colours of 
white, grey, red, and yellow. In the part at which the lava 
begins to run, there is a very deep chasm in the ground, from which 
a kind of smoke issues that has tinged the rocks black and red, 
and covered their sides with particles of thermal boles. If the 
ancient Greek and Latin poets had been acquainted with these 
places, they would certainly have described them as the residence 
of Eolus and Vulcan ; for the Hverevalle is, beyond contradic- 
tion, among the most admirable and extraordinary wonders of 
Dature to be met with in Iceland. 

There may also be remarked here the remains of a large 
building, which is supposed to have been inhabited by banditti ; 
but this is not very probabie,as the place is accessible on all sides. 
W e found in this vicinity a vast number of square lava-pebbles, 
of which we formed a pyramid ten feet in height at a few : paces 
from the Bellowing Hill ; and on this occasion we observed a 
singular instance of the penetrating force of sound, as we found 
that our pyramid re-echoed the roaring of the hill. 

In the district of Thingoe is a spring called the Oxehver, or" 
ax-spring ; which is said to derive its name from the circumstance 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



125 



of an ox having fallen into the crater, and being afterwards ex- 
pelled from another at some distance. But the most probable 
origin of the name is, that the noise resembles the bellowing of 
an ox. The Oxehver propels the water to the height of eight 
feet for about a minute, or till that in the bason is reduced 
about a foot and a half : it then ceases for two or three minutes, 
at which time the water in the bason has regained its level; a 
harsh noise is then heard in the earth, similar to that from 
the discharge of several muskets, on which the water begins 
to issue with impetuosity. At a short distance farther to 
the north is a small hot spring, which the inhabitants use for 
bending wood ; as the water possesses the singular property 
of softening and even consuming wood that is left in it a short? 
time, to such a degree that nothing but the filaments remain, 
and it is difficult to distinguish to what substance these belong. 
The natural colour disappears; and the wood becomes white, 
blueish, and somewhat transparent : under this state it much 
resembles asbestos, and when the filaments are separated they 
might be taken for fine silk-thread. This singular metamorphosis 
is the more worthy of attention, because it is on a substance 
thus prepared that the thermal waters exert their petrifying qua- 
lity in impregnating the matter of the particulis tophaceis. 

METEORIC PHENOMENA. 

The northern quarter of Iceland often affords a spectacle of 
igneous meteors, but particularly lightning and other calorific 
phenomena, which originate from the volcanoes and vast glaciers 
in the middle of the island. The atmosphere is sometimes red 
and loaded with flame ; while at others there may be seen ignited 
globes and trains of fire like comets, which dart backwards and 
forwards to a great extent. — Several of the inhabitants of this 
quarter, and particularly of the district of Hunavatn, perceived at 
the end of September 1755 a phenomenon of this kind. An 
earthquake, which was felt in the whole of the northern district, 
preceded the appearance of the meteor ; and was considered as 
the indication of the eruption of mount Katlegiaa, which actually 
took place about the middle of October. The earthquake began 
by five or six shocks at eight o'clock in the morning, and towards 
nine several others occurred, which were announced by a hissing 
m the air: the ground then shook, and at first experienced a 
number of gentle though considerable motions; bur afterwards 
the concussions were frequent and violent. We happened to be 
present when this event occurred, and our tent made frequent 
springs in consequence of the undulating motion of the ground : 
at the same instant we heard a terrible noise, the shock of which 
threw us out of our tent; when we saw all the mountains enve- 

cj2 



V24 



OLAFSEN AND FOVELSEN's 



loped in a thick fog, while the air resounded with the continual 
fall of vast precipices. 

FERTILITY OF THE NORTHERN QUARTER. 

We were enabled by experience to confirm the report, that 
in the northern districts both grass and plants thrive abundantly; 
a circumstance which is attributed to the prevalence of the north 
winds. We remarked that the vapours which this wind 
conveys to the districts near the sea, contribute materially to 
fertilize the soil. Two principal causes may be assigned for this 
effect. The first is, that the plants of the northern climates are, 
as well as the inhabitants, accustomed to cold, and can support 
it better than heat: hence, when they are transplanted to a 
milder region, it is necessary not only to procure, an appropriate 
soil, but even snow and ice are necessary to preserve them. 
Another cause of the vigour of grass and plants in the northern 
countries is, that their roots can withstand the rigours of winter. 

This district produces the same series of plants as are found in 
the western part. The following species are met with in con- 
siderable abundance: Gentiana, Centaurium (minus); Coch- 
ledria; Achillea (millefolium) ; Epilobium (alpinum); A run- 
do (arenaria); Papaver alpinum; Agaricus caulescem, pileo 
atbo horizohtaii, lame /lis § stipite alb is; Agaricus caulescem, 
pileo supra piano subconvexo horizontali, 8fc. ; Agaricus cau- 
lescem, pileo subconvexo supra ex albo sanguined; Viola Mar- 
tis tricolor; Gallium flore luteo; Pinguicula; Plantago 
mervia; Ulmaria; Archangelica; Muscus Islandicus Lichen 
foliaceus minimus ascendens ramosis; Coralloides tenuissimus 
nigricans;; Bistorta (polygonum); Campanula (patula); 
lihodiola; Juniperusfruticans; and Carduus heterophyllus. 

The various particulars relative to the character of the inha- 
bitants, their manner of living, and the means of their subsistence, 
are so very similar in their details to what we have already en- 
larged upon, that no farther observation is necessary. We shall 
therefore mention a few unconnected circumstances ; such as the 

SINGULAR METHOD OF CATC it i N G MOUNTAIN-FOWL. 

All the birds taken on the isle of Drangue, as well as then- 
eggs, and the perroquets of Iceland, belong to the bishop. This 
chase, if it may be so called, is very lucrative : but that pursued 
by sea within circumference of the island is still more so, and is 
performed in the following manner. They construct small rafts 
of plank, about four feet long by two and a half wide, and fix 
five of them together in such a manner that the distance between 
each increases progressively from boat to boat. A cable, with a 
large stone for an anchor, fixes them in the sea. Each raft is 



TRAVELS tm ICELAND. 



perforated with a number of holes, in which are arranged from 
a hundred to a hundred and fifty laces of horse-hair ; and a bird- 
call is placed in the middle raft. The inhabitants of the environs, 
on the arrival of the season, repair to the shore to pursue this 
kind of hunting. Their boats are large, and contain from six to 
eight men, while to every five rafts is attached one of these boats. 
There is, besides, a boat winch draws six or eight smaller rafts, 
for the benefit of the men employed. As soon as they have fixed 
the rafts, they go to a distance and drop the fishing-lines, which 
are provided- with a certain number of hooks: these are sunk to 
the bottom by leaden weights, while they are kept perpendicu- 
lar by wooden floats. 

They visit these lines twice a day, and in the interval they fish 
with common lines. The fish are distributed over the rafts. 
Each raft is capable of containing about a score of birds at a 
time; and it is remarkable that the fish suffer themselves to be; 
taken more readily with black horse-hair than with that of any- 
other colour. 

The western part of the isle of Drangue contains a spot at 
which these hunters can land at the base of a rock : but it is im- 
possible to proceed up the island without permission from the 
people belonging to the bishop, for on every side the rock 
is extremely steep. In the spring, when the people em- 
ployed by the bishop arrive, the most hardy and active among 
them ascends by driving nails from space to space on which 
he rests his feet, and continues this process till he gains the 
summit ; he then drops a rope with which he is provided, and 
thus enables the others to mount. On quitting the isle they take 
out the nails. It will be perceived, that when they gain the top 
they begin to hunt the birds ; but though this manner differs from 
that of the rafts, yet the latter is of great utility when the sea 
is calm. 

A MONSTER. 

In these districts there is a kind of fish which is considered as 
a monster, perhaps on account of its size ; but it will doubtless 
be discovered by naturalists to belong to the genus of marine 
worms. The Icelanders may be excused for their notion 
of it, since it is known that a celebrated nation, remark- 
able for its scientific men, has taken for an unknown and 
terrible monster a far less animal, doubtless of the same species. 
We found in one of the annals of Iceland an account which states 
that in the year 1639 there was thrown upon the coast of 
Thingoe a singular creature or monster, the body of which was 
as long as that of the human species, and was provided witl^ 
seven tails ; each of which was four feet long, and covered with 



126 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN*S 



knobs resembling the pupil of the eye, with eyelids of a golden 
colour. Independently of the seven tails, another appeared above 
them, which extended to the length of four or five fathoms. The 
history relates that this monster had neither bones nor cartilage, 
and to the sight and touch appeared only like the front part of a 
woman's stays: no head was distinguishable, unless one or two 
projections might be called so w hich were near the seven tails. 
It is said that many persons of respectability examined this 
prodigy, and that one of the tails was sent for investigation to the 
ancient abbey of Thingoe. The above is the description of 
this fish as accurately as we could procure it. 

It at first appeared to us that the examiner was deceived, and 
had taken the posterior for the anterior part of the animal; while, 
the carbuncled appendages might be not tails, but tentacles or 
arms; and as mention is made only of seven, it was probable that 
the eighth hadbeen torn off. Now, however, we think it evident 
that it was nothing more than a very large cuttle-fish ( Sepia ); but 
of what species we cannot determine) since no description has 
been given either of the form of its stomach or the structure 
of its mouth, which were probably disfigured and damaged. 
The description of the carbuncles and the cotyledons is curi- 
ous ; and appears to be very accurate, from the precision 
with which the colours, &e. are described. An animal of 
the same species, which was found on the coast of Holland 
in l66l, excited such a sensation in the country that it was 
taken for a prodigy. Aldrovandus, Johnston, and others, speak 
of a fish of the same kind which was found in the Mediter- 
ranean, and which grew to four feet : it had ten tentacles like 
that of Iceland. We saw- a drawing of this fish ; which, though 
badly made, enabled us to ascertain its structure. 

VAPOUR-BATH. 

On arriving near some mines of sulphur, our guides pointed 
out to us what they called a dry bath, which is a natural grotto 
that has been rendered more convenient by being fitted up w ith 
lava-stones found in its vicinity. Two apertures in the floor of 
this grotto exhale a very hot and moist vapour, which however 
is neither unhealthy nor of a disagreeable smell. The inhabitants 
make use of this bath by sitting on the ground, which is covered 
with sand. There are many opportunities for constructing simi- 
lar baths in this neighbourhood. 

VOLCANOES, AND MODERN ERUPTIONS. 

Near Myvatn there are two or three burning mountains. 
That called Krabla is celebrated by its terrible eruptions beiween 
the years 1724 and 1730. It is formed rather of clay than of vock} 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



127 



and of late years has become crooked and deformed; but its 
name, as well as two hideous gulphs or basons which it contains 
on the south-east side,, still render it famous. These gulphs con- 
tain stagnant waters, and have received the name of Hell- 
mouths. Although there were several inhabitants at a short 
distance, we could not induce any one, even for money, to 
conduct us to the Krabla: for they all pretended that it was 
impossible to get at it, particularly on horseback; as their sheep 
were often lost by falling from the precipices, and sinking into 
the pits of mud which are concealed from view. Having how- 
ever received all the information we could procure relative to 
the road, we set off together and arrived without accident, 
though we met with many of the reservoirs which were hot and 
covered with a crust of red earth. We ascended the Krabla till 
we reached one of the craters in the form of a cauldron, which 
we distinguished from a distance by the black and thick smoke 
that it emitted. 

All this country we found to resemble the famous Solfatara 
near Pouzzol in the kingdom of Naples, and which the inha- 
bitants take to be purgatory. The last eruption of the Krabla 
was terrible and impetuous : it vomited flames and matter in a 
state of fusion, which rolled down in torrents and inundated 
the neighbouring fields. In the lake, where this matter burned 
like oil for several days, it killed all the fish, and dried up a great 
portion of the water. The largest branch of this river of fire 
ran three leagues from the mountain, and was a league in breadth ; 
while another torrent overran the presbytery of Reykehlid, 
which was swallowed up without leaving the least trace behind : 
but the most astonishing circumstance in this accident was, that 
the church remained untouched, as did the burying-ground at- 
tached to it, though the firey torrent passed round and scorched 
it. The volcanic matter ran slowly, destroying every thing it 
met with in its passage without undergoing the least change. All 
the lava is therefore of the same black colour ; and no dif- 
ference is to be perceived in the part where the parish was de- 
stroyed, except that the stones are a little redder. These vol- 
canic torrents emitted in the day-time a blue flame like that of 
burning sulphur, though the smoke that rose from every part 
prevented it from being often seen. During the night the whole 
horizon round the lava was inflamed, and the highest regions of the 
atmosphere were reddened by it. The burning streams propelled 
globes of fire into the air, the continued redness of which gave 
notice of the horrible disaster at a very great distance. In the 
parts where the torrent stopped, as well as in the vallies, the 
surface of it was soon covered with a crust similar to the scuiri 
formed on hot milk : this crust, which might be from one to two 



128 



OLAFSEN 



AND POVELSEN8 



feet in thickness, soon hardened like stone; but when new 
waves of fire arrived they broke, melted, and carried off the 
crust, as a thawing stream dislodges and conveys away the ice. 
In concretion the lava assumed different and very. curious figures; 
as those of flowers, works of sculpture, &c. After the volcano 
had ceased to vomit fire and formed its incrustation, the bottom 
of the currents of lava remained a long time in fusion,, and con- 
tinued to run under the crust in such parts as were sloping : in 
forcing its passage the fiery substance generally broke the con- 
densed crust, and thus occasioned many crevices and caverns 
internally vitrified, with stalactites suspended on their sides. The 
most intense fire of these volcanic currents vitrifies, calcines, or 
reduces to ashes, every thing with which it comes in contact; and 
when it consumes itself in a rock it leaves nothing but the ashes 
of the matter in fusion. 

OF BLOOD IN THE SEA. 

This phenomenon is well known in other countries, but seldom 
occurs in Iceland. It was perceived in 171- on the coast of Rey- 
kestrand, from the shore to a considerable distance in the sea. 
The oars of the fishermen were tinged red, as were the rocks be- 
low high-water-mark. The historian says, to make use of his 
own words, " that they were dyed or covered with coagulated 
blood;" which proves that the writer, as well as the people, con- 
ceived it to be that substance in reality. The same phenomenon 
was observed in 1049 m the western quarter, about two leagues in 
the sea : on the preceding night the water appeared to be all on 
fire, and the next day it was red. It must therefore arise from 
something of a phosphoric nature; but we cannot decide whe- 
ther this proceeded from marine insects, or some maritime plant. 

VARIOUS REMARKABLE CIRCUMSTANCES. 

We shall here record a few observations which / we conceive to 
be of interest. . ,. . _ ,. . ; 

I. The first church for christian worship was that built at Aas, 
in the canton of Hialtedai near Holun, in the year 9B5: it was 
erected by order -of bishop Thorvard Spakbodvarson. 

II. The small farm called Kalvskind, near Oefiord, is cele- 
brated from having been the residence of Rorek, king of the 
upper countries of Norway. Having been vanquished and 
made prisoner by Olaf the Holy, king of Norway, who put out 
his eyes, he was transported to Iceland; and was no where happy 
except in the little farm above-mentioned, which was then kept 
by a poor peasant. 

III. Printing was introduced into Iceland by a Swedish priest 
named John Matthieson, who practised it in the district of Hu> 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND^. 



129 



navatn, where he resided in 1748. His son conveyed his print- 
ing-office to Nupefell, where he printed books at the same time 
when bishop Gudbrand began to print at Holun; and this prelate 
afterwards added that printing-office to his owe. 

IV. A human skeleton was dug up in 1748? from an eminence 
in the presbytery of Ravgenil. During our travels we saw 
She bones; which were large and strong, and evidently those of 
a man far beyond the ordinary stature. From several circum- 
stances we had reason to conclude that this skeleton must have 
been buried nearly eight hundred years. 

V. A pestiferous and terrible meteor, like a large cloud, 
was seen in the last century upon the mountains in a high and 
Marrow path at Siglefiordskard: where, as well by day as by night 
it moved about in the air; and falling suddenly upon tra- 
vellers, suffocated them in an instant. This was most destruc- 
tive about the year 1730, and it was supposed by the people to 
be the evil spirit. The curate of the district had orders, on per- 
forming divine service, to offer up prayers for its removal : an 
altar of stones was, in consequence, erected near the spot in 
173o, and the service celebrated in the presence of a great num- 
ber of assistants. Since that period nobody has been incom- 
moded by the phenomenon. 

EASTERN QUARTER. 
This part of Iceland, which in the language of the country is 
called Ostfirdinga Fiordung, extends from Langenoes in the north 
to Osterhorn ill the south, and from this latter promontory to- 
wards the west as far as the river called Stank-Elv-paa-Solheime- 
Sand. In going over this quarter our travellers pursue their 
usual series of remarks on the situation and quality of the soil, 
the coasts, isles, mountains, and roads; with other minutiae, not 
generally interesting, if we except the follow ing particulars. 

OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS. 

There are very high mountains in Iceland, but no part of the 
country contains such enormous ones as this quarter. We tra- 
velled to the glaciers which several of them contain, and which 
eject water and fire. Our journey to the mount named Kat- 
legiaa was occasioned by a wish to see closely the eruption from 
that volcano which took place in the year in which We travelled. 

A WFUL ERUPTION OF K ATLEGI A A. 

One of the ordinary symptoms of an approaching eruption of 
volcanoes is an earthquake. The last in this district occurred in 
1755, and was probably occasioned by the internal convulsions 
of the glacier of Myrdal. The same glacier exhibited a simi- 

OLAFSEN.] R 



130 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSENS 



lar dreary spectacle about the year 900 ; and from that pe- 
riod to the time above-mentioned, the horrible scene has been 
live times repeated. Nothing, however, indicated the lust 
eruption ; except that towards the end of the preceding year two 
new rivers arose from the glacier, and ran across a part of the 
canton called the Sands of Myrdal. The people, nevertheless, 
did not apprehend an eruption, though they had observed an 
extraordinary melting of the ice of the glacier, which must have 
been occasioned by the subterraneous tire; because, as soon 
as the ice is dissolved, the water which drop? from it falls into 
the bowels of the mountain, and meeting with the fire puis it in 
agitation. Hence arises the earthquake w hith is felt at a dis- 
tance: because the fire labours to open itself a passage, parti- 
cularly near the volcanoes that are extinct; and there may often 
be perceived vent-holes from which the fire exudes, very far from 
the place of eruption. 

With respect to the eruption we are about to describe, it began 
about ten in the morning on the 17th October; when sudden and 
irregular shocks were felt throughout the whole canton of Myr- 
dal, which did great damage to the houses. Soon afterwards 
the lire burst out with great violence, totally melting all the 
ice that remained: and afterwards a river darted from the Kat- 
legiaa; and, spreading itself into three branches, inundated the 
whole extent of lava called Myrdal Sands. This torrent ear* 
ried with it, as far as the sea, a quantity of enormous pieces 
of ice like small hills, which crashed together in their course 
with a terrific noise, and which had torn off with them frag- 
ments of rocks as large as mountains. The torrent of water 
was filled besides with smaller lumps of ice and black pumice* 
stone ; and it was in general thick and muddy, impregnated with 
sulphureous and cineritious argilla. The continual shocks of the 
earthquake absorbed the attention of the inhabitants: when sud- 
denly a terrible noise, like the bursting of a thunder-cloud, issued 
from the Katlegiaa, which was followed by a propulsion of fire 
and water alternately, accompanied by a dreadful report ; at the 
same time an internal disruption occurred with such violence, 
that the inhabitants thought the moment was arrived for the total 
destruction of Iceland. The eruption took place at three con- 
tiguous apertures; and immediately after a deluge of water rushed 
forth, carrying of! to the sea prodigious masses of ice and 
rocks: it was preceded by a thick cloud of black smoke, and 
followed by a hail of gravel and pumice-stone. During these 
horrible scenes the earthquake continued with a singular subterra- 
nean noise; and from time to time the volcano projected to a con- 
siderable height vast globes of fire of a dazzling brightness, which 
burst jo the air and' were seen at a great distance. After the first 



TRAVELS TN ICELAND. 



m 



paroxysm, and the slibwer of stone and gravel, a natural but 
very extraordinary hail succeeded; each hail-stone containing 
a particle of gravel or ashes, with which the air Was filled 
at the moment of congelation. The volcano thus continued its 
ravages for the first day ; and at night it presented a spectacle 
similar to artificial fire-works: the air was filled with flames and 
sparks produced by the globes of fire which the crater continued 
to dart forth like lightning; winch rose to a distance, then split 
into thousands of particles, and spread a sublime effulgence in 
every direction. These globes of fire were projected into the dis- 
tant cantons. An ignited column of various colours next rose 
from the crater; and a tremendous report, similar to the repeated 
firing of artillery, was heard in the bowels of the mountain, in- 
dependantly of the noise already mentioned, The people, among 
whom were ourselves, were much inconvenienced by an insup- 
portable sulphureous smell; and a fine ash-like dust, which we 
inspired by the nostrils, and which soon affected our lungs. Both 
heaven and earth now appeared in flames : the burning matter 
fell upon the affrighted spectators, who were fully of opinion 
that the world was at an end. 

On the following day, the 18th, the weather was calm but 
rainy, and the volcano was obscured from the sight by a fog that 
covered the whole canton. The same detonation, earthquake, 
and subterraneous noises, were, however, repeated, accompanied 
with frightful hissing. At night the horrid spectacle of the pre- 
ceding evening was resumed, and globes of fire were incessantly 
propelled. — On the 1 9th the weather was serene, and the air was 
clear throughout the canton of Myrdal: the wind was north- 
west. The column of smoke which rose from the apertures of 
the volcano appeared black by day, and full of balloons and 
sparks of fire, which at night illumined this whole canton as 
before; but it is very remarkable, that the districts to the east- 
ward were enveloped in total darkness, as well by night as day. 
All the cantons in the eastern quarter were covered with black 
sand and ashes : and the internal detonations, resembling the re- 
ports of cannon, were heard as far as the districts of Goldbringue 
and Kiosar, which are between twenty-five and thirty leagues 
distant from the volcano; while on the same day the ashes fell 
like rain in the isles of Feroe, so as to render them totally black*. 
The next day the wind blew from the same. point, and the vol- 
cano continued its ravages. At this period, among the globes of 
fire that were propelled, we observed two of very great bulk, 

* These isles are situated in the North Sea, about the longitude "of seven 
west from London. They are one hundred leagues (of twenty to a degree} 
E. S. E. from Katlegiaa. " Edit, 

H 2 



152 



OLAFSEH AND POVELSES'i 



which burst with such a horrible report that we never heard any 
thing like it. 

On the 21st of October the wind changed to the north-east ; 
the darkness spread to the canton of Mjrdalj and the atmos- 
phere was covered with a whirlwind of ashes. The column of 
lire continued to rise till the 25th; when fhe wind changed to the 
north-east, and the darkness prevailed, accompanied by a terrible 
fall of ashes, which blackened the snow in the i ; le of Videy, in the 
district of Goldbringue. In the vicinity of the mountain the 
pumice and other stone and gravel had fallen to the depth of 
three feet. In short, till the 17th of November the eruption, 
earthquakes, and detonations, continued with little diminution: in 
pohst of violence. 

In the following year, between January and September, this? 
mountain made five eruptions; the last of which was accom- 
panied with a terrible fall of stones and ashes, so as to throw the 
inhabitants agafn into rhe utmost consternation. 

The disastrous effects of the eruption of Katlegiaa were — 

1. The devastation of the surrounding meadows by torrent- or" 
water," and particularly also by the showers of sand, ashes, and 
stones. . By this means nearly fifty farms -were destroyed, and 
the owners rendered houseless- 

2. The monntainosis country beneath the volcano, as well a? 
the sea-shore, afforded incredible proofs of the violence of the 
eruption ; for there might be seen along the whole coast of the 
rrroemtainous chain of -Myrdal, several large rocks in the space 
of two league?, which had been detached from the glacier by 
torrents 'of water. Three chains of rock, ice, and pumice- 
stone, extended in a parallel direction along the Sands of Myr- 
dal, and ran into the sea at the distance of three leagues from 
the coast. These rocks still project above the sea, in place* 
where the fishermen, formerly found forty fathoms of water. 

3. The eruption alluded to reduced the inhabitants of the vi- 
cinity to misery ; and it is even a miracle that many of them 
were not destroyed, though it was ascertained that only two per- 
sons lost their lives by this fatal occurrence. The roads and 
fields about Katlegiaa were filled with travellers on the day 
of tie eruption, and the torrents of water thrown out by the 
crater carried off numbers of cattle. The men who were sur- 
prised by this sudden fail of water, saved themselves on the 
mountain of Hafursoe; widen is insulated, and probably had 
been surrounded several times with the aqueous fluid. Others 
had already passed the fatal plain; and many saved themselves 
upon the heights, leading up their horses: but these eminences 
soon became isles by the inundation from the volcano i and the 
unfortunate people were thereby exposed for seven days to starv- 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



rtig, cold, anil showers of stones, with no prospect around 
them but that of certain destruction. 'At length the masses of 
ice being consolidated, they drew after them their emaciated 
horses, which were so reduced as to be unable to walk; and 
gained, when they were themselves in the last stage of ex- 
haustion, the parish of Hofdebreck, in the canton of Myrdah 
On the 7th November, when the inundation had ceased, these 
men, to the number of eighteen, endeavoured to pass over the 
plain; but the heaps of ice rendered the passage impossible, and 
and they at length found the means of reaching the sea-shore. 

The strong sulphureous exhalations, besides subjecting the in- 
habitants to the danger of suffocation, also deprived them of 
the sense of smelling: the eyes became red, the eye-lids swoln, 
and the guins ulcerated. The cattle which were not carried off 
by the inundation, did not escape the disaster: for some of them 
went mad from alarm at the fire and earthquakes, and ran head- 
long into the abysses among the rocks; while those which re- 
mained were starved, because the pastures were covered with 
sand and ashes, so that the animals, by searching for grass, exco- 
riated their mouths and teeth. To increase these unfortunate 
circumstances, the winter provisions which the inhabitants had 
collected, were spoiled by the fine cineritious dust, which pene- 
trated every crevice of the houses; and all the portable water 
was corrupted by the infected air and flying ashes. 

4. The volcano threw out, during the impetuosity of the erup- 
tion, a meteor similar to a strong flash of lightning, the effects 
of which were both astonishing and dreadful. Eleven horses 
were killed by it in the vicinity of the mountain, three of which 
were in a stable, and were found dead by the side of each other. 
The two people abovementioned lost their lives by this meteor 
in a remarkable manner: The one, a respectable peasant, on 
coming out of his house, was struck by it, and fell dead in- 
stantly : at first, no mark or wound was perceived, nor were bis 
clothes scorched ; but, on being undressed, it was found that 
the skin and flesh on the right side were burnt so as to expose 
the bones, as were the shirt and neckcloth, which were pro- 
bably of good linen, though his outward clothing, which was 
of woollen, did not seem to be injured. The other victim of 
this phenomenon was a servant, who used to go out with the 
peasant to milk the cows : she was struck at the same time, but 
did not die immediately. On changing her clothes it was found 
that she had been burnt on the right side; but the burn, which 
was penetrating, glutinous, and very different from an ordinary 
stroke of lightning, continued to consume her, so that whenever 
the clothes in which she had been dressed were taken off, they 
were found to be damaged by the caloric. At length her bodjr 



134 



OLAFSEN AND PCHSELSETi's 



became swollm, and suppuration took place: the tire extended 
to her intestines ; and this unfortunate girl, after lingering for some 
days, expired in the most shocking agony. Several persons ob- 
served that this fire perforated in various parts the hard and com- 
pact roots which it met with in its passage; making round holes 
which were smaller on the side from which it issued, than on 
that where it entered. 

GLACIER OE KATLF.GIAA, SlC 

Our travellers made a journey to the summit of this glacier, 
accompanied by a guide; and reached it, after encountering 
many difficulties exactly similar to those they experienced on tra- 
velling to other eminences. When they arrived within a league 
of the glacier, they were surrounded by a heavy fall of snow, and 
the winds became so violent that they could scarcely stand. A 
fog covered the mountain on which they stood, as well as the 
summit of Katlegiaa; and they w ould not venture to- pass the 
night at such £n elevation, lest the cold should be too severe. 
-But the greatest danger they incurred was, their proximity 
to the Katlegiaa itself: which was then in a stale of fermenta- 
tion, and, as they were informed by the guides, had been vomit- 
ing fire for two days before; while from the direction of the 
w ind at the time of their journey, they were exposed to any 
shower of stones and sand that might occur. They therefore 
returned to their tent by eight o'clock in the evening. On the 
following day, say our travellers, at six in the evening, a loud 
report similar to a clap of thunder, was heard from Katlegiaa. 
Our guide, who was born and brought up in the vicinity of the- 
mountain, told us, that the masses of ice had given way in the 
parts were the noise was heard. In the evening w e saw towards 
the west a globe of lire, at no very great height above the ho- 
rizon: it w as about the size of a full moon, and had a tail like 
a comet ; while above it, another stream of light appeared in a 
zigzag form like lightning. In a short time both these meteors 
sunk, and disappeared in the clouds that surrounded the glaciers 
of Myrdal. 

On the 30th August w e pursued our journey over various sum- 
mits till we reached the top of the glacier; where we had a fine 
field tor contemplation on the nature and effects of the lava, both 
of which have been already described. The result of our obser- 
vations on this and the neighbouring glaciers, may be comprised 
in a short compass. The degree of heat and cold is very dif- 
ferent in these cantons; but no one has hitherto thought of 
making observations on the thermometer, which might neverthe- 
less be highly interesting, particularly in the neighbourhood of 
Oraefe, which is contiguous to the glaciers. It would be very 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



135 



astonishing if the cold were not found much more severe in this 
part than elsewhere. 

The masses of ice which come from Greenland to this coast, 
as well as to that of the north, cause here the same revolutions 
as occur in the more northern atmosphere: they chill the 
air on their arrival to such a degree, that in summer snow falls 
in abundance; while the frost is so severe that it destroys the 
grass, and sometimes even the cattle. In the years 17 5o and 6, 
we were witnesses to a similar occurrence winch destroyed all the 
productions of the soil. It appears that these musses of ice, 
came in ancient times to the eastern coast. The annals relate, 
tiiat in 1320 they obstructed the passage to the north and east 
shores, and occasioned a famine in the following year throughout 
Iceland, 

The atmospheric phenomena, earthquakes, Sic. are so fre- 
quent in this part of Iceland, that the inhabitants seldom regard 
them, and still less speak of them, as new or extraordinary oc- 
currences. The cause of such phenomena is undoubtedly the 
vast number of icy and burning mountain^ which produce all 
sorts of meteors. Thunder is rarely heard in the district of . 
Mule, which is contained in this quarter of Iceland : and hence 
the annals describe with much propriety as, an extraordinary 
event, the misfortune that occurred in 1690; when a house was 
destroyed, a woman wounded, and a cow killed, by lightning in 
the Canton of Ostfiord. 

The inhabitants of this quarter of Iceland possess no pecu- 
liar characteristic to distinguish them from those of the districts 
already mentioned: though the latter look upon them as a distinct 
people, in consequence of their living insulated, as it were, from 
the other quarters ; so that, having little occasion to communicate 
with their countrymen in general, they have a manner of behaving 
and reasoning peculiar to themselves. They are mostly peaceable, 
sentimental, and reserved; and though they do not differ essen- 
tially from the other inhabitants, yet their dialect, costume, 
mode of travelling, &c. are sufficient to make them appear to 
people^ of other districts as a distinct race. 

OF STREAMS CHANGED INTO GREAT RIVERS. 
The inhabitants assert that some streams have been extra- 
ordinarily augmented by the eruptions of the volcano ; but as 
those often change their beds, it is not easy to determine how 
inuch they may have increased. With respect to rivers whose 
increase is continual, we have two examples. The first is that of 
Jukulsaa, on the sands of Solheime, which is called the Stink- 
ing River: it was formerly a small stream; but received a vast 
increase frQin the fermentation and the eruption of the glacier, 



136 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



which inundated the plain, and carrying off all the grass, tram- 
formed it into a desert. This devastation took place about the 
year 900, and the Landnama-saga speaks of it as a supernatural 
event: since that time the river has become large and deep 
enough to convey the masses of ice from the glacier; and it is 
uow one of the principal rivers of the country. 

FURTHER REMARKS GN BLOOD IN THE SEA. 

Tn.lS'3S, but at what period of the year is not mentioned, the 
fishermen on the eastern coast perceived blood coagulated in the 
sea, which was driven by the tide in oblong heaps upon the shore. 
We mention this circumstance that it may be compared with 
the detail we have already given. It is likewise certain, that 
when whales meet and tight in the sea, and particularly- when 
they are pursued by hundreds of harpooncrs, the sea becomes 
tinged with red to the extent of several leagues round ; hence 
this may be a natural cause of the phenomenon alluded to. 

SOUTHERN QUARTER. 
Our travellers inform us that during the time they travelled, 
they made the isle of Videy, in this quarter, their habitual winter 

residence. 

JOURNEY TO MOUNT HECLA. 

M. E. Olafsen, who published at Copenhagen a dissertation 
on the natural state of Iceland, embarked from the above- 
mentioned isle, in a merchant ship which was proceeding to the 
isles of Vestmannoer; where, in company with M. Povelsen, he 
undertook a journey to mount Hecla. 

This mountain, which is better known to strangers than any 
other, is one of the inferior elevations of Iceland. The annals 
call it by its proper name, which is Heklufiall; from which fo- 
reigners, and particularly the Germans, have formed their Hec- 
kenfeld. It is not a promontory, nor is it situated on the 
sea shore, as it has been represented in a number of charts. It 
lies to the west of the glacier of Thmallojceckel : and now beyond 
the canton of Rangaarvalle, though it was formerly within this 
canton ; but its numerous eruptions have so ravaged the sur- 
rounding country, that the people have withdrawn from it. 

On arriving at a habitation called Selsund, near mount Hecla, 
the owner wished to become our guide. He was well acquainted 
with the country around this mountain, though he had never tra- 
velled farther than its base; for the people consider it as an act 
©f rashness to attempt to examine the mountain, and they assured 
us that it w ould be impossible to ascend it on account of great 
numbers of dangerous bogs, which they asserted were always 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



137 



fottrnjng with sulphuric fire and exhaling smoke; while the 
summit, according to them, was covered with boiling springs, and 
large craters which continually propelled smoke and fire. They 
told ii3 that Hecla was provided with a guard of black and 
singular birds of the conformation of the raven, armed with 
beaks of iron, with which they gave a very unpleasant reception 
to those who had the temerity to climb the mountain. This 
story is one remnant of the popular prejudices that have been 
formed with regard to this mountain. Our guide, nevertheless, 
assured us that he never perceive^ either the birds, the fire, 
or the smoke. 

We had an opportunity during our journey to mount Hecla, 
to contemplate its environs, which on the south and west sides 
■afford the most afflicting specimens of frequent eruptions. The 
finest part of the territory in question is covered by torrents of 
melted stone, sand, ashes, and other volcanic matter. Between 
the sinuosities of the lava we observed, in different parts, some 
portions of meadows, walls, and broken hedges ; and our guide 
informed us that on the east and north sides the devastation was 
still greater, and afforded dreadful traces of the ruin of the country 7 
and its habitations. 

There are neither grass nor plants to be met with to the ex- 
tent of two leagues round mount Hecla, in consequence of the 
soil being covered with stones and lava ; and in some parts 
where the subterraneous fire has broken out afresh, or where 
the matter which was not entirely consumed has become ignitod 
again, the fire has contributed to form small red and black hil- 
locks and eminences from scoria?, pumice-stone, and ashes. The 
nearer we approach towards the mountain, the larger are these 
hillocks ; and there are some of them the summit of which is a 
round valley, whence the subterraneous iire ejects the matter just 
mentioned.. 

As we approach towards mount Hecla, the ground becomes 
almost impassable, particularly near the higher branches of lava 
which have been thrown from the volcano. Round the latter 
js a mountain of lava, consisting of large melted flag-stones,, which 
are from forty to seventy feet high, and in the form of a rampart 
or wall. We were here obliged to leave our horses : and even our 
guide begged to be excused from attending us any farther, under 
the pretence that he had a violent head-ach : but the real reason 
we suspected rather to proceed from the operation of his pre* 
judices with respect to this terrific volcano. The flag-stones 
alluded to were detached, and mostly covered with moss ; while 
"between them were very deep holes, which prevented us from 
advancing without the greatest circumspection. We ascended 
on the western side. The rocks appeared very strange to us, for 

olafsen.] n 



138 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



they cracked continually under our feet, which at first gave us 
much uneasiness ; but on investigation. we observed that the rock 
itself had been consumed and was reduced to pumice stone, which 
was disposed in thin horizontal layers, fractured in every direction. 
From this circumstance an idea may he formed of the intensity 
of the fire which could thus consume a whole mountain : for 
if Hecla were for a few times to take fire again, all the rocks 
that compose it would fall into ashes. 

We continued to ascend without meeting any obstacles that 
impeded our attempts, by small slopes which we found at inter- 
vais, of which we passed seven before reaching the summit. We 
found in the breaches and fissures, which were ver numerous, 
a quantity of white, black, and red, polishing-stones (skuurstem), 
the first of which was uncommonly fine and light. This circum- 
stance tends to support the account of mount Hecla having 
vomited water, though in a far less quantity than the devastating 
torrents of Katlegiaa. Here has also been found after the 
different eruptions of mount Hecla, a great quantity of salt, 
sufficient to load a number of horses, w hich in no small degree 
tends to confirm the opinion of the connection between vol- 
canoes and the sea. Such a communication may reasonably be 
presumed, particularly with respect to the volcanoes and gla- 
ciers of the eastern parts of Iceland, on account of the great 
extent of their bases: in fact, these mountains vomit a much 
greater quantity of water than the solution of the ice would 
afford; and it has even been observed, that these waters possess 
a brackish taste. With respect to mount Hecla, it may as an 
objection to this theory be observed, that a vast quantity of rock 
salt may be contained within it; but its bowels undoubtedly 
extend to a level with the sea. Besides, independently of the 
opinion so generally received by learned men or all countries, 
that there is a secret connection between this mountain and Etna 
in Sicily, since the two volcanoes have so often been observed to 
burn at the same time, a number of curious examples are known 
which prove the sympathy between Hecla at the time of its 
eruptions, and the other volcanoes in Iceland more distant from 
it than it is itself from the sea. 

It was on the night of the 19th June that w e ascended the 
mountain. The weather was serene and calm, but when we had 
attained a certain height we began to feel cold: the surface 
was covered with ice and snow ; not how 7 ever of the nature of 
those of the glaciers, because here the ice melts in summer, 
except such as remains in the deep fissures and holes. On 
reaching the ice we found it covered with snow that had lately 
fallen, which w r e ascertained to be deeper and deeper in proportion 
as we ascended : at the summit of the crater it was a foot and a 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



139 



half. The whole of this, as well as the preceding* day, the air 
had been clear in the canton beneath the volcano ; but like the 
other mountains, it attracts the clouds that envelope its summit, 
without their being perceived by the inhabitants. It is worthy 
of remark, that the snow had fallen only on that part of the moun- 
tain which was covered with ice, and not below ; so that it may 
be concluded that the ice which is on the mountains in summer 
is the measure or degree of elevation, or that region of the air, 
where the thick clouds and vapours oan collect and float in the 
atmosphere though the air may be pure and serene in the 
lower regions : hence at this height the air possesses a certain 
density. In other respects Hecia is only a small mountain, 
compared with the high glaciers and mountainous chains of the 
interior parts of Iceland. Its circumference is from three to 
four leagues ; and its height by approximation to that of the 
other mountains which have been measured, is about three thou- 
sand feet above the plain of sand that is below the rampart of 
lava. Its elevation above the sea is yet unknown. 

After a fatiguing journey, up to our knees in snow T , we at 
midnight reached the summit of mount Hecla. A perfect si- 
lence prevailed; and we could perceive nothing but ice, and 
neither fissures, streams of water, boiling springs, smoke, nor 
fire. It was as light as at noon-day, so that we had a view of 
an immense extent. We looked over ail the glaciers in the east- 
ern part; and hi the distance we saw a high and square moun- 
tain which our guide had previously informed us was the ancient 
volcano of Hosrdabreid, which appeared to us like a large castle. 
We also discovered all the high mountains in the northern quarter. 

Not meeting w ith any thing remarkable on this mountain, wq 
descended by the western side, along a ravine or deep valley,? 
which runs from the summit to the base. There is some reason 
to believe that this ravine is tire bed of a river of lava which the 
volcano ejected in the year 1300; since the annals assert that, 
during this eruption Hecla was split from top to bottom : and 
though the cavity in question now bears the appearance of a deep 
valley, it is certain that when formed, it was laid open to the 
bow r els of the mountains; but when the eruption ceased, it wa$ 
soon filled with the stones, rocks, and gravel, that fell into it. 
At length we rejoined our guide at the bottom of the hill, and 
found that he had got rid of his head-ach ; he expressed his sur-; 
prise at seeing us return safe. 

ERUPTIONS OF MOUNT HECLA. 

From every probability, this mountain must have been subject 
to eruptions long before Iceland had any inhabitants. One of 
the annals states the first eruption, after it was peopled^ to have 

s 21 



OEAFSEN AND POV£LSEN% 



occurred in the year 1004; and another chronicle asserts that the 
one of 1029 was the third. But in general the histories of the 
country do not agree on this point: for from certain annals which 
speak only of great eruptions", mount Hecla appears to have un- 
dergone no more than twelve; while others contend that sixteen 
have taken place. We, however, after attentive reading and care- 
ful research, ascertained that it has experienced twenty-two erup- 
tions, without reckoning those the periods of which are uncertain* 
though many take them into the account ; because the same erup- 
tion has sometimes lasted upwards of a year, or one has commenced 
in winter and continued till the succeeding spring. Most of the 
annals of Iceland agree m stating that the first known eruption 
from mount Hecla took place between the years 1D04 and 1 106: 
while the last overflow of its crater was in the year 1693. A 
fire broke out among the surrounding lava in the year 1728. 

In 15.54 there were remarked several violent eruptions from 
the mountains contiguous to Hecla on the northern side, and 
the fire appeared for the last time in 1754 in the lava to the west 
of this volcano: the fire in question lasted three days* 

The intervals between the eruptions of Hecla are very tm*- 
equal : for from two to five and ten years sometimes scarcely pass 
in tranquillity, while at others from fifty to sixty years occur be- 
tween two eruptions; and in 1765 upwards of seventy years 
had elapsed since the last fermentation, on which account the 
inhabitants were daily expecting an eruption more violent thau 
ever. 

In 1766 their fears were realised : for on the 5th of April 
an approaching eruption was announced by earthquakes, and 
it began by an exhalation of smoke and flame; while pebbles 
and large stones were propelled to a prodigious distance. The 
fermentation re-commenced in 1767 j and in 1768 flames still 
continued to rise at night from the crater. 

M. Biarne Povelsen visited mount Hecla in 1762, to collect 
volcanic or volcanised substances ; but a fog which came om. 
prevented him from ascending. He only met with a variation of 
the common melted stone marked with ligneous fibres: it resem- 
bled jasper, was of a red colour, and on breaking exhibited yel- 
lowish veins; the filaments were black. This specimen was 
evidently ferruginous. We have spoken of the fossil-wood called 
Surturbrand, which has been petrified after being turned into 
charcoal. In 1750, M. E. Olafsen found a specimen of it in 
the mountain of Draapehlid ; and these two species of stones 
exhibit a singular proof of the metamorphoses that are affected 
by volcanoes,. 

OF THE GEYSER. 

Tfie Geyser k a boiling spring ia the southern district, which. 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



141 



is well deserving of notice. At the time when we arrived at it 
the water was at a considerable height in its bason, and overflowed 
it in every direction. Soon afterwards were heard a sub terraneous 
rambling and gentle detonations. This was the signal for the 
propulsion of the water,, which began instantly to rise; but 
at the period in question it did not attain more than sixty feet. 
The jet suddenly ceased, and began again at intervals of some 
minutes. The violence of the spurting diminished by gradations, 
till the bason became entirely empty. Our guide told us that ft 
was usual to see the Geyser flow with such feebleness and irregu- 
larity. The bason was for an instant without any water; but the 
vapours which arose from the crater prevented us from seeing the 
bottom. We measured its depth with a plum-!ine r and found it 
to be seventy-two feet : while the diameter of its orifice was about 
fifty-seven ;. and that of the bottom, or very little above it, 
eighteen feet. The bason, by contracting, terminates like a 
funnel: we therefore again dropped our line, in the hope that the 
lead would find some apertures through which the water issues; 
but no sooner had the ball touched the bottom, than a boiling 
Jet d'eau was propelled over the rock, though fortunately it did 
not fall upon us. Not willing to be deterred from our purpose 
by such an interruption, we again attempted to sound the bason, 
when another gush obliged us to make a precipitate retreat. The 
air and manner of our guide on this occasion evidently testified 
that he w as alarmed at what had happened; and that he thought, 
like most of the common people, that it was not permitted to 
man to examine such mysterious places, because the powerful 
spirits who reside in them always punish those who attempt to 
dive into their secrets. We frequently, but in vain, renewed our 
attempts to sound this crater, in order to ascertain what holes 
were at the bottom : but either our ball w r as too large, it being 
about two-thirds of an inch in diameter ; or the apertures were 
sinuous like those of the Hverevalle, which prevented us from 
gaining our point. 

After the propulsions already mentioned, the Geyser remained 
tranquil during the night, the water rose slowly, and the bason 
v*as not full till four o'clock in the morning. We remained in 
the vicinity, that we might not fail to observe the spouting of 
the water; and in order to ascertain its force, threw into the 
bason some pebbles and thermal concretions which we found 
about it. At length the issue of the water was announced by a 
Tumbling noise under our feet, similar to the firing of cannon at 
a distance. Five reports of this kind succeeded each other, 
each of which was louder than the preceding, or as if the can- 
non was approaching towards us; we felt at the same time 
the ground shake under us as if it was about to split or burst* 



142 



OLAFSEiV AND POVEL3EN*S 



On the sixth report, the first propulsion took place, and 
the water rose to-a-great height; after which every successive re- 
port was the signal for a new ascent, each of which carried the 
water higher than thai which had previously taken place. Th& 
pebbles and stones we had thrown into the bason were split 
in a thousand .pieces, and thrown up much higher than the co- 
lumns of water, which always terminated in a point. We took 
the precaution to place ourselves to windward, that we might 
not be incommoded by the thick smoke which had prevented us 
from seeing the opposite side. From the very beginning we had 
observed, that at each propulsion the water which was in the 
bason was agitated, and raised so as to overflow the crater in 
every part ; but particularly on the northern side, where it fell 
into a small valley and formed a rivulet, in which the water at 
a great distance from the Geyser still retained such a degree of 
lieat that the feet of the cattle which passed it were often scalded. 

The spouting of the Geyser was this time greater and more 
violent. According to our observation, the greatest rise of the 
water was not quite so high as the mountain or Laugafell which 
is opposite to the Geyser, and whose elevation may be about 
Seventy fathoms; we estimated the height of the spouting water 
at sixty. The inhabitants of the neighbourhood, however, who 
daily see the Geyser, pretend that the water has often spouted as 
high as the summit of the mountain in question, and when this 
occurs they expect rainy and stormy weather. The propulsions 
lasted, in all, ten minutes; and an interval of about three seconds 
occurred between each subterraneous detonation which announced 
the ascent of the water. In consequence, there were at this time 
about two hundred jets altogether. 

OF THE NATURE AND QUALITY OF THE GEYSER. 

Hothing is known with certainty relative to the sources of the 
Geyser; it not having been ascertained, whether the water that 
is propelled from it proceeds from the neighbouring mountains, 
or from the sea. The former opinion is the oldest, and perhaps 
the most reasonable. In the Danish Mercury for 17-54, are 
some details relative to this spring, in which it is stated that the 
variations in the issuing of the water have no fixed period. The 
rock from which it proceeds has. increased in the course of 
time, by an accumulation of the thermal turf which we have 
already described, which in its colour appears at first sight like 
the crust that is found at the bottom of boilers: that of the 
Geyser is'very hard and uneven, and is dispersed in thin layers one 
above the other; and the whole rock is formed of this substance. 

The boiling water of the Geyser has a petrifying quality, as 
we had opportunities of ascertaining. The pebbles and ther- 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



143 



mal concretions which we found at the bottom of the crater, 
were covered with the stalks- of plants and small branches of birch, 
completely transformed into a hard stone of a pale colour. We 
found in the rock itself the stalks of petrified plants ; besides 
different kinds of wood, sheep-bones, and even horse- dung, pe- 
trified. Among the rest was a stone bearing the impression of 
small birch-leaves, in which we could distinctly perceive the 
filaments: the leaves were white, and composed of a kind of 
thermal turf; but the stone itself was evidently transformed into 
Scoriae of earth. We no where met with a similar metamorphosis. 

There are several other hot springs near the Geyser. What 
lias been said in the Danish Mercury relative to the. ocular 
demonstration of various persons, who have often seen flames 
issuing with the water of the Geyser, is by no means contrary to 
experience. The edges of the craters of several of the hot- 
springs are covered with a crust of this white matter; which re- 
sembles porcelain, and is no where to be found except at 
Hverevalle. 

In these -parts are several pits of boiling clay ; and other fine 
fat earths of- various colours, similar to what is found contiguous 
to the sulphur-pits. Of the boiling springs lately mentioned, 
one in the canton of Hreppar called Grafarhver is worthy of 
notice, because the people assert that birds are often seen to 
swim in the boiling water : which, if true, is a secret of nature 
that cannot be accounted for; but the inhabitants do not agree 
in their account of the size of these birds. Some say that they 
are as big as ravens, and others that they resemble ducks or 
plovers: they are seldom seen more than two together; and a 
difference of opinion prevails about their colour, though it is 
agreed that they are dark. 

In the canton of Oives there are also a number of hot-springs, 
one of which likewise bears the name of Geyser, which word 
implies violent: it is inferior to the Geyser already described, 
but its process is much the same. — Near the last-mentioned 
Geyser is a dry spring called Seyder. Its tunnel does not con- 
tain any water, but a thick smoke issues from it; the heat of 
which is so great, that the inhabitants can easily cook in it their 
milk, fish, and meat. They assured us that their victuals are 
dressed by it as quickly as in the water of the boiling springs; 
and that they receive no peculiar taste or smell from the smoke, 
which itself has so sulphuric odour, though some vapour issues 
with the smoke : it is the latter probably which penetrates the 
vessels, and causes ebullition. 

We ascertained that the degree of heat in all the hot springs 
is nearly the same, as is the weight of the water. Fahrenheit's 
thermometer g*enerally rose in it to 182° ; and out of the water, 



in 



OLAFSEN A.N'D PO^ELSEn's 



In the smoke or steam near the surface., to Q0° : the heat is con- 
sequently rather greater in the springs of Gives than in those of 
Reykhokz. 

With respect to what we lately observed about the plunging of 
birds in the hot water, we have ancient authority for the relation. 
Halfdan Jensen affirms the same thing, and asserts that many 
respectable persons of his time had attentively noticed the swim- 
saiBg of the birds in the springs of Gives. We were told as 
n fact, that these birds not merely swim, bat dive beneath the 
boiling water ; and that when a man approaches, they remain a 
long time under it, and sometimes never rise again. They are, 
however, not often seen; for three or four months sometimes 
elapse between the periods of their appearance, and there are 
only a few select springs to which they repair in winter. We 
dare not give the lie to the assertions and attestations of persons 
of credit; but if we consider these birds to be natural, how 
many objections may we not oppose to the relation ! Their plu- 
mage, beaks, and legs, if defended by a callous skin, might pos- 
sibly resist the boiling water while swimming; but when they dive 
what becomes of their eyes? Perhaps these organs are of a par- 
ticular nature, and we may be told that the salamander has eyes, 
but we now know that that animal does not live in fire, as was 
formerly supposed; it only passes rapidly round, and goes through 
a short portion of this element. We must also ask, of what na- 
ture is the blood of these birds. We know that that of birds in ge- 
neral is light, and on this account sea-birds cannot dive. To 
this it may be answered, that the thermal water is much lighter 
than any other, and that ducks are in general heavy. The ex- 
cessive heat however of these springs is such, that no ordi- 
nary bird could immerse itself in them without instant destruc- 
tion. We therefore think, that if the birds in question do exist, 
they must be amphibious, and in this case would afford a great 
and interesting novelty for naturalists. 

OF THE AUROItA BOREALIS. 

This meteor is frequently seen in Iceland from the decline of 
day till midnight ; at which hour it generally disappears, and does 
not occur again during the night, though the atmosphere be 
serene. This event, however, takes place only in dark nights; 
for when the moon is full, or nearly so, the aurora borealis is 
scarcely ever seen : yet it sometimes happens, that when the 
moon appears in all its splendour, the aurora borealis rises in the 
distant horizon, approaching towards the lamp of night, and as 
it advances it loses all its brilliancy. On the 18th November, 
1753, the aurora borealis appeared in the south-east horizon at 
seven in the evening, and extended at first in a luminous arch 



TRAVELS lis ICEIANB, 



145 



-towards the north-west; but suddenly it expanded over the 'whole 
sky with an extraordinary brilliancy: it was admirable to see this 
phenomenon disappear several times in a sort of twinkling, 
so that there remained only a feeble light at the south-east in the 
lower part of the horizon. A strong wind had blown all the 
day; and in the evening the frost had set in so severely, that the 
sea was frozen between the isles and the coast. On this and 
eight following days the wind was north-easterly, and often gentle 
except on the 23d and 24th of November. 

On the 18th December 1754, the aurora borealis appeared 
in the evening after a very stormy day, accompanied with hail, 
thunder, and dreadful lightning. The storm continued in the 
evening, and all the night; but between the gusts the sky appeared 
clear and the moon bright, the winds blowing from the S.S.W. 
The aurora which then appeared, did not vacillate; it extended 
from W.N.W. in a number of luminous and narrow streams, at 
first as far as the zenith, and afterwards descended E.N.E. to- 
wards the horizon. The storm and lightning continued the fol- 
lowing day: the frost was more intense, but there was no thun- 
der, and the' aurora again appeared in the evening. 

On the 9th December 1755, the weather was fine with a 
gentle east wind: it froze at half past nine in the evening, and 
the moon appeared in the W.S.W.; w hen the aurora borealis ap- 
peared suddenly in the west, and divided into two great arches, 
which extended over the horizon north and south at no consider- 
able height till they met together. This spectacle continued 
for about a quarter of an hour; and the streams did not penetrate 
into the upper region. At ten o'clock there appeared an arch 
in the east passing the zenith, and proceeding westwardly: it 
continued to expand till half past eleven, when the upper ho- 
rizon was covered by it, and threw out a vivid light like 
flames. The s~y could, however, . be perceived between these, 
and the ring still appeared to surround the horizon.— At length, 
at midnight the aurora entirely disappeared, with, the eruption of 
the ring; which shone about an hour longer, and whose strongest 
fight was on the northern side. 

On the 1st October 1756, a gentle w 7 ind blew from the N.W. 
the sky was clear, and the w eather was cold, when a thick arch, 
not particularly luminous, rose from the W. to the zenith, whence 
it darted in a northern direction a luminous point that formed a 
rectangle, and which was again subdivided into two other points. 
This was the only time that we ever saw the aurora borealis ex- 
hibit such a singular spectacle. Shortly afterwards the light re- 
tired towards the east of the horizon, shining with brilliancy, 
increasing in size, and rising in undulatory arches, which con- 
tinued to dart more rapidly towards the S. aud JS". The light 

OLAFSEN.] "K 



14# 



#LAFSEN AND 1*0 V ELS EN ^S 



diminished from nine till ten o'clock, and then entirely disap- 
peared. 

The southern quarter enjoyed a beautiful spectacle of this kind 
in 1757. On the 7th February, that and the preceding day 
having been fine, moderately cold, with wind from the E.S.E. 
the aurora borealis appeared suddenly at six in the evening in the 
northern region, scintillating with extraordinary and rapid move- 
ments without any certain form. The light augmented and spread, 
till about half past seven: the atmosphere from S.E. to S.W. 
appeared like one blaze of rare as- far as the zenith, being every- 
where covered with a red or purple flame ; white the rest of the 
heaven was ornamented by the streaks which issued from this 
mass, and was uncommonly brilliant, This meteor, unlike any 
thing we had ever seen before, lasted about five minutes. 

From the above observations it will be seen how variable 
the aurora borealis is in Iceland, it is extremely seldom that 
tills phenomenon is observed motionless; or that the horizon? 
is reddened, without sensible vacillation^ as is the ease in southern 
Europe. The aurora borealis often exhibits yellow, green, and 
purple streams, all equally brilliant; sometimes undulating, and 
at others like the fir? of rockets. 

We were well aware of the deraBgement of the needle by 
fhe effect of this meteor while it lasted; but we had a compass,, 
which was no tadapted for such observations, so that we could 
not ascertain to what degree this variation extended. 

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS*- 

DISEASES. 

Th& venereal disease first appeared in Iceland in 1753, in the 
district of Goldbringue. The inhabitants, and particularly the 
young people, unacquainted with its nature, neglected it; never- 
theless it did not commit much havock, nor extend so much as it 
might be expected. The government afterwards sent a physi- 
cian to cure the poor gratis : he is annually supplied with medi- 
cines, and paid for teaching young men who wish to study physk 
and surgery. 

MANNER OF LIVING AMONG PEOPLE IN EASY CIRCUM- 
STANCED 

l?ithin the last fifty years, and particularly in this quarter, m 
vast change has been introduced in the manner of living among 
the inhabitants. Their food is differently prepared and numerous 
dishes, as well as foreign liquors, are now in fashion ; a variety of 
dedicate eatables, expensive drinks, and groceries of all kinds, 
being in constant demands Among these factitious necessaries 
there are many, of which even the names were unknown about 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



147 



Jmlf a century ago. Poverty has increased with luxury, though 
the introduction of the latter is considered as a mark of prospe- 
rity; but the annual importation and consumption of a great 
quantity of groceries, wines, and brandy, has not only drained 
the country, but rendered the inhabitants effeminate and valetu- 
dinary, as well as caused a serious change in their morals. At 
the present time tea and sugar are so common in this quarter, 
that almost every peasant in decent circumstances is provided 
with his set of china. Coffee is also much in vogue, but it has 
not yet extended among the peasantry ; other persons, on the 
contrary, make a daily and expensive consumption of it. These 
do not consider their food palatable without being seasoned with 
all the aromatic spices afforded by every quarter of the world: 
they must have red, and French, and sometimes even more va- 
luable wines, with their dinner; though not many years have 
elapsed since red wine was unknown in Iceland, while the white 
kind was used only at solemn festivals or among the first persons 
in the country. 

SINGULAR' ACCOUNT OF A SPECIES OF SHARK. 

In this quarter of Iceland sharks form a lucrative object for the 
fishermen, on account of the great quantity of oil obtained from 
them. There is one species deserving of public notice, the male 
of which is described by Artedus as follows: Squalus pinna ani 
nulla, corpore subrotundo. We often examined the female, and 
made a variety of remarks respecting its generation. The vagina 
is short, but very large, and capable of great extension : the ma- 
trix is double, and situated on each side of the rectum: its. two 
uteri are oval, oblong, or resembling a pear; and perfectly se- 
parate, except where they meet at the orifice. There is a narrow 
canal which goes from the bottom of the matrix to the ovarium; 
it is tolerably large, and situated between the pectoral fins ; is 
regularly rounded, and contains a great number of eggs, the 
major part of which are about the size of a pea or smaller, while 
some are as large as a chesnut, and one or two of the biggest 
are the size of a hen's egg. Two nerves extend from the ovarium 
to the rectum, and lower orifice of the matrix. We found 
three eggs at once in one of the vulva?, and four in the other. 
The small squali are hatched in the belly of the female; and as 
soon as they issue from the shell, the egg again closes round the 
umbilical cord. It retains the placenta uterina; and becomes 
filled with a thick and whitish matter similar to the first milk of 
a cow after calving, and of rather an oily nature. Thus the 
young squali, like many other creatures of the animal kingdom,, 
are nourished through the umbilical cord ; and when they have 
attained their full term, are torn from each of the vagina^ 



148 



GLAFSEN AND POVELSETs's 



and swim round the mother with the egg still attached to them 
by the umbilical cord. A circumstance still more wonderful is 
related by the fishermen, and in which they all agreed; that 
the young squalus frequently enters the dam for the purpose per- 
haps of repose or nourishment, or to avoid approaching dan- 
ger. We have, however, always doubted this account; till we 
had one of these fish in our hands, and examined its internal con- 
formation. The fishermen farther assert, that when they take a 
female of this species, and open it in their boat, their young ones 
issue out alive: this is natural enough; but that they re-enter the 
mother when dead, remain in her, and come out occasionally for 
the purpose of respiration, is a circumstance which we greatly 
doubt, and have no means of ascertaining its truth. 

As the young squalus increases in size, the egg contracts 
and diminishes in proportion ; till at last it drops, and the um- 
bilical cord comes off. Some time before this happens, the 
little fish has taken' food by the mouth, and has acquired suffi- 
cient strength to be able to provide for and defend itself; k 
therefore abandons the mother, as it can no longer find an asylum 
* through her means. We ascertained that this species of fish 
drops its young in the month of June, singly; some of them which 
were alive having been brought to us between the 10th and 18th 
of that month. Nothing, we conceive, is more probable than 
that all other fish with cartilaginous fins possess nearly the same 
singular economy in their generation. 

While we are on this subject we shall mention another pecu- 
liar and interesting circumstance relative to the fish generally 
called the Buckler, or the Cycloptems Linnm, Syst. Nat. 132, 
which is found in abundance along the coast in the district of 
Goldbringue. The female deposits and fixes her spawn on the 
rocks along the shore, and sometimes so high that at low water 
it can in the month of June be reached by the hand. This fish 
comes to the coast in March, and departs in July. The in- 
habitants of the western quarter, who apply to the know- 
ledge of fish, assert that the male of this species breathes 
frequently and gently upon the spawn, as if for the purpose of 
hatching it. In the year 1755, we ascertained the truth of this 
account by finding a quantity of spawn with the male near it. 
It remained motionless, and horizontal in the w ater, its mouth 
being turned towards the spawn, from which it was distant about 
an inch; the mouth was continually in motion, opening and shut- 
ting as if spitting something upon the spawn, but these mo- 
tions were always slow : though the sun shone brightly, we 
could not discover whether any thing came from the mouth; but; 
it is probable that it communicated some nutritive air or humour 
to the spawn, near which we did not observe the female ap=* 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



149 



preach. "With respect to the birth of the fish of this species, we 
received from a reputable person in the western quarter an ac- 
count which states, that at the end of July and beginning of 
August, he found in the sea in calm weather a quantity of weed 
drifting in with the current, and thinking he perceived among 
it some insects in motion, he examined it nearer, and found it to 
be filled with little cyelopteri, adhering to it by their pecto- 
ral tin, which was round, and resembled a buckler or shield. 
There were several of them which could not find a place, and 
swam round the weed endeavouring to fix upon it. Their con- 
formation was perfectly distinguishable; though they »were only 
from two to six lines in length, and each of them had its egg at- 
tached to the umbilical cord. What was very extraordinary in 
these young fish was, that some had three eggs, others only two_, 
but very few had one. Our observer did not examine in what 
manner these eggs were joined together; for it is probable that 
one or two which w ere abortive remained attached to the egg 
which properly belonged to the fish that drew it. These two 
discoveries in the natural history of the fish in question will pro- 
bably lead to others that relate to the generation of this ciass^ 
and their first disclosure from the egg. 

EFFECTS OF SUBTERRANEOUS. FIRE AT REYKIAVIK. 

YV e must reserve a space for mentioning the subterraneous fires 
which, since the occupation of Iceland, have appeared in the 
chain of mountains of Revkiances, that extends from the heath 
of Helli^heide to the point of the promontory in the sea. The 
first eruption took place in the year J 000, in the mountain that 
stands beyond the canton of Gives; where a river of fire or mat- 
ter in fusion ran over the high rock called Vatskard, and emptied 
itself into the canton below. There still remains a striking mo- 
nument of this eruption in a great extent of scoriae, which shews 
the course taken by the fiery matter. 

The coast called Vandlose-strand, or the dry coast, every 
where presents the most frightful appearance of melted and sub- 
verted rocks, and alarYning clefts and holes in the ground. The 
point of the promontory of Reykiances is, however, the parti- 
cular spot which has always had a passage open to the burning 
mountains above it. According to bishop Oddsen, there was in 
1340 a terrible eruption, which consumed more than one half of 
the promontory : and the isles and rocks situated beyond this point 
likewise afford the most striking proofs of the ravages of fire, 
not only in the soil of the isles, but particularly in the sea near 
the promontory: for the fire has had its seat here since the 
most distant ages, and has often burst forth from the bowels of 
the earth across the sea, the deep and roaring waters of which 



loO 



OLAFSEN ANP PDVELSEN's 



have not been able to resist its violence. The Stummga Saga, 
and many other of the Icelandic annals, assert that the fire has 
broken forth in this spot; and that there have been extraordinary 
eruptions as often as five times in the thirteenth century, in con- 
sequence of which ancient and modern isles have successively 
appeared and disappeared in a manner as astonishing as dreadful. 
The fire broke out again in 14C2: but on its rage being ex- 
hausted, it remained tranquil till 158,3; when, accordiug to 
bishop Oddsen, it was seen for the last time at a great distance 
in the sea, by the crew of a ship that was passing. 

The opinion which we have already hazarded as to the incre- 
dible force of the eruptions of the volcanoes in Iceland, receives 
additional weight and elucidation from what has just been stated ; 
inasmuch as that the sea itself may become the focus of great and 
terrible eruptions, while it has such a remarkable communication 
with the mountains on land. 

ON THE PESTIFEROUS EFFECTS OF THE AlR. 

If the two events which we are about to describe had not re- 
cently occurred, and been w itnessed by a number of persons, 
they would not perhaps be credited. Hence the people attri- 
bute them to the operation of evil spirits : and for this they can- 
not be blamed; as the holy scriptures afford them sufficient 
authority, and they are in want of that knowledge which would 
enable them to discover the natural causes of such accidents. 
The first is as follows: 

We learnt that three or four persons had dropped dead sud- 
denly on the coast of Vandlos-sirand, to the south of Hafnefiord, 
in the winter of 1753-4; some before, and others after Christ- 
mas: but particularly on the estate called Landekot. The soil in 
this part is open and burnt; and we conjectured that it exhaled 
some vapours that were more pestilential than ordinary on accouut 
of the subterraneous sewers being blocked up by the snow and ice. 
In the following winter the same accident happened to some others, 
and in the third year the total number of persons suffocated 
amounted to nineteen. The inhabitants now became so terri- 
fied that they talked of abandoning the canton, which was very po- 
pulous on account of the abundance of fish. As the persons 
dropped down while walking through the fields, suddenly gave_a 
shriek and expired, the survivors believed that it was a punishment 
with which the Almighty had entrusted the evil genii ; neverthe- 
less they were persuaded to remain there the fourth winter, though 
not without being in a panic of terror lest they should be afflicted 
with sudden death. But in that year no person died in the man- 
ner described., nor has any similar example occurred since. We vi- 
sited the spot in the summer of 1 7 do, and observed that the soil was 



TRAVELS IX ICELAND, 



151 



every where open. The inhabitants informed us that the neigh- 
bourhood was always free from snow, as indeed great tracts of 
lava generally are ; "but they asserted that the sudden deaths oc- 
curred whether snow and ice were on the ground or not. They 
added two othercircumstaiices: first, that the accidents in question 
always happened during the winter solstice when the days were 
short and dark, but always in the day time ; and secondly, 
that those who died in this manner were almost all related 
to the same family, the principal part of the number being 
formed by four brothers and their children. As two of the bro- 
thers were walking together one of them dropped dead, while 
the other did not experience the least disagreeable sensation. All,, 
however, who were thus struck were people of regular habits; 
and it was not perceived that any of them was of a melancholic 
temperament, or had any complaint that might induce a suspend 
sion of vitality, 

The other event is no less strange, though of a different na- 
ture* In the summer of 1754, on a morning when the weather 
was serene, though the sky was rather cloudy and a slight wind 
prevailed, there was seen at Orebaek a black cloud coming from 
the mountains in the north-east, and descending obliquely through 
the atmosphere towards Orebaek. Hie nearer it approached the, 
smaller it became, and it darted along with the rapidity of a hawk, 
This cloud, which then appeared round, new towards a spot 
where several persons had assembled, as w T ell strangers as 
natives, for the purposes of commerce; and on passing ra- 
pidly before them it touched the jaw of a middle-aged man, 
which gave him such paiu that he instantly became raving mad 
and threw himself into the sea. Those who were near him ran 
and prevented him from drowning; but he continued insane* 
nttered all sorts of extravagant expressions, and made many 
forcible attempts to free himself from those who held him. 
They wrapped his head in flannel, and held him down for some 
time upon the bed; when after two days the madness abated, 
but he was not restored to his senses till the expiration of a 
fortnight. Another account of this phenomenon states,, that 
the persons in company with him did not perceive the cloud till 
it came up with them, but simply heard a hissing in the aii 
while it passed : those, however, who were farther off observed 
its rapid course, and saw it sink and disappear on the sea-coast. 

The cheek of the man who was touched by this cloud was 
turned of a deep black and blue colour, which gradually disap* 
pearedas he recovered. Everyone will make his own reflec- 
tions on these singular events ; those who are acquainted with 
the secret effects of nature^ and versed in history, will doubt- 
less find similar examples. In other respects the reader may 



1£2 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's 



compare these incidents with those of a like nature which hap- 
pened iii our own time > and which we lately described. 

REMARKABLE PLAGES. 

From time immemorial the following places have been con> 
sidered as remarkable: 

I. The Althing, or seat of the general court of justice* 
We have already mentioned Keykiavik as singular for being the 
first habitation in Iceland: built by ingolf; who, as well as his 
successors, there administered justice, and held the althmg (or 
superior general court) at Kialarnes, whence it was afterwards 
transferred to Thingvalle, where it is still held. The river 
Oxeraa now divides the Althmg into two parts. The spiritual 
court, which is on the right bank, is held annually in the church 
of Thingvalle, but only for the bishopric of Skalholt; that 
of the north is held at Ilugimere, in the canton Skagafiordur. 
On the western bank of the above-mentioned river is the build- 
ing appropriated to the proceedings of the inferior court, called 
Lavretten: this building is now of wood, as is that of the supe- 
rior court which is contiguous to it. The court called Lavret- 
ten was formerly held in the open air; but in 1690 a place was 
erected for it similar to the other buildings of the Althing, that 
is, the walls were of lava stone, and the roof was of rafters and 
laths, covered on the outside with their Vadmel or woollen. 

II. The bishopric of Skalholt which was established by 
the first bishop Isler, about the year 1055: this bishop was the 
son of Gissur, surnamed the White, who together with Hialte- 
Skeggesen did so much, that through their efforts, the Christian 
religion was authorised by a law, and adopted in the year ] 000 
at the Althing. It was the king of Norway, Oluf-Tryggveson, 
who after having taken much trouble to no purpose to cause 
this new religion to be adopted by the Icelanders, sent off the 
two persons above mentioned to finish the work, but their at- 
tempts had nearly proved abortive; for the eruption took place 
at that identical time, which produced the lava called Thuraar- 
hraun, and at the very moment when they were harranguing their 
countrymen, messengers arrived with the melancholy news*:' and 
the Pagans considered the eruption as a token of the anger of 
the gods, at the blasphemous discourses of the partisans of the 
new religion. A fortunate circumstance however allayed the 

* The Khristni Saga, chap. II. p. 88 — 90. mentions this circumstance 
in the following terms: "Ecce autem vir cursu anhelus: ignem subterra- 
neum in Olfus erupisse, et jam villa Thoroddi pontincis imminere nunciat. 
Turn ethnici: non miram, si ejusmodi sermonibus excandescerent dii, voci- 
ferantur. At Snorrius pontifex: quid igitur uxanduerunt dii, cum scopulus, 
cm nunc insistimus comlagravit? 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



153 



rage of the people in this critical moment; for a heathen priest 
named Snorro-Godi, who probably had formed a good opinion 
of the new faith., answered their outrageous remarks by the fol- 
lowing laconic and ingenious question, " What was the reason 
of the vengeance of the gods, at those periods when the rocks 
on which we now stand were in flames? for every one knows 
that this happened before the country, was inhabited." Christi- 
anity was then adopted by the people, and fifty years afterwards 
the son of Gissur the White was created bishop; and SkalSiolt 
was made the episcopal residence for the whole of Iceland. The 
son and successor of the latter, whose name -was also Gissur, com- 
pleted the business, by persuading the Icelanders to enact a law 
relative to tythes, which continues in force to the present day. 
He then ceded and separated all the northern part that it might be 
formed into a second bishopric. 

III. The isle Videy contained a very famous monastery till 
the reformation of Luther, at which period it was secularized: 
this monastery was founded in 1 226 by bishop Magnus Gisserseu 
and his brother Thorvald, and this Thorvald was afterwards canon 
of the monastery. 

IV. Bessastadr, vulgarly called the Royal House, which is 
now the residence of the baillie, was also known in ancient 
times, principally because this place was the property of the fa- 
mous historiographer Snorro-Sturleson, who made it his country 
seat. Formerly the governors of Iceland resided here when 
they stopped in the country in the summer: they generally came 
every year, and returned in their own ships. 

Vestiges of antiquity. 
We shall mention the following remains of antiquity as worthy 
of notice. 

I. An eminence on an islet situated in the river Oxeraa, belong- 
ing to one of the most famous heathen poets of the north, named 
Thorlev-Jarlaskald. Some remains of this eminence may yet be 
seen, though the overflowing of the river has from time to time 
carried off the major part. The history of king OJuf-Trygg- 
veson contains an account of the structure, and of the life of its 
illustrious owner. 

II. The ornaments of the cathedral church are fine and valua- 
ble, particularly two antique altar pieces. They still preserve 
here a bishop's crook, the head of which is brass very finely gilt, 
and an episcopal bonnet of golden-worked cloth. Here is also 
to be seen the coffin of Saint Thorlak, who is the same Sanctus 
Thorlacus mentioned in our almanacks : he was born in the 
southern quaiter; he succeeded to the episcopal chair in 1178; 
and died in 1193. His translation took place in 1198; and 

OLAFSEN.] Ti 



154 



OLATSE.N AN I) POVE-tSENS 



hi6 history, which is filled with prodigies and miracles, still exists 
in Iceland. His coffin or sarcophagus which is in the form of a 
small house, is seven feet long, five high, and three wide: it is 
covered with black leather, trimmed and embellished with brass 
ornaments. There is no relic in this sarcophagus except two 
fragments of bone, which are said to have belonged to the scull 
of the saint. These bones were held in high estimation ; and 
some annals assert to the credit of Bishop Wilchin, who helcf 
this office at the death of the saint, that he caused his skull to be- 
completely covered over with silver, and in the two fragments that 
remain in the coffin, there may be perceived the marks of small 
fcails as well as pieces of the metal. One is naturally inclined to 
ask how this could have been done,, since the head is not now to he 
found ; but the relics themselves will furnish us with an answer; 
for they are nothing more than pieces of large cocoa-nut. These 
nuts were formerly very scarce in the north, and perhaps totally 
unknown to the mass of the people; and it is certain, that they 
\vere not allowed to examine attentively the remains of the saints* 
11L A crucifix at KaMaderaces in the time of the reformation 
of Luther was greatly honoured and adored throughout the coun- 
try for the innumerable prodigies which it was said to have effected. 
It was richly covered and decorated with velvet shoes, pieces of 
gold and silver, and other ornaments that had been presented 
to the image. Gissur the first Lutheran bishop caused the image 
to be taken from the cross, forbade the people to adore it^- 
and despoiled it of its ornaments; but they~ had it privately re* 
placed: on w hich bishop G isle Jonsen hearing of their supersti- 
tious proceedings, went in 1587 to Kaldadernces, caused the image 
to be taken down a second time, aud carried it to Skalholt, where 
he had it cut to pieces and burnt; but this bishop happening to- 
die soon afterwards, the fanatics attributed his death to the ven- 
geance of the figure. Lrom an ancient poem composed in ho- 
nour of this image, we learn that it had been brought into Ice- 
land, as. was supposed from Rome; and was purchased at the 
port of Einershaya at Oi eback, 

OF ANTIQUE ARMS. 

They shew at Skalholt an ancient axe or halbert, which be- 
longed to the hero named Skarphedin, who, according to the 
Nials-Saga, died in 1010. It is much consumed by rust, and 
the handle which is of pine shod with iron, is six feet and a half 
long. 

At Hlidarende are preserved two sabres and a lance ; the for- 
mer are not remarkable. They are of the same size, and 
the blades which are very rusty, are three inches broad. — 
The handle of one of them is nearly a foot longhand ornamented" 



♦TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



155 



«wkh brass; while that of tlie other is covered with skin. Instead of 
a guard they have a piece of curved iron about an inch in thick- 
ness, with two round buttons at the ends. The lance is. a strip 
of pine five feet four inches long, shod with iron. There is 
also in the same place a vizor much decayed, which is com- 
posed of four rings of iron that are groved into each other: its 
thickness is double round the neck, and it must have been made 
for a middle-sized man. 

OF THE GENERAL COMMERCE OF ICELAND AND PARTI- 
CULARLY OF THAT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

The ports and harbours of Iceland particularly those of the 
southern quarter were in former times much frequented by mer- 
chants, and first by those from Norway; afterwards by the Ger- 
mans, and particularly by the Hamburgers, who came in great 
numbers. The English began to trade there in 1413, though 
without permission ; and they afterwards continued their traffic 
for a length of time either by permission or secretly ; because it 
often happened that commerce was absolutely forbidden with 
them on account of the disturbances which they excited in the 
country; but at that period the trade was of no great extent. 
John Gerricksen and other Catholic bishops, several of whom 
came to this part of Iceland in the English vessels, bought mer- 
chandizes which they sold to foreigners, and thus created a con- 
siderable traffic. A vice-governor having made a fortune in this 
manner, resigned his functions, and went to live in England, 
carrying with him great riches in merchandize, silver and jewels. 

In this century fishing was carried on to a considerable extent, 
but the more this increased the more was rural economy neglected. 
The great plague at length occurred, and agriculture as well as 
other essential occupations were neglected; because every thing 
was in confusion, and this confusion for a long time gave rise 
to various abuses. About the year 1420,, the vice-governors 
began openly to monopolize the commerce by trading with 
their own ships: the bishops on the other hand as they acquired 
riches and power, become dissolute and arrogant. An event 
which happened to bishop Gerricksen is very remarkable in 
the history of Iceland: his brother having in 1433 asked in 
marriage a young lady of distinction without being able to obtain 
her, conceived himself so mortally offended, that in revenge he 
killed the brother of the lady, and set fire to the house in which 
she resided, which with the people in it were destroyed, except 
the lady whose destruction was intended. She had the good 
luck to escape at an opening in the roof without being perceived 
by those who surrounded the house. At length being preserved 
from .such imminent danger, and overwhelmed with resentment 

u 2 



156 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEn's 



towards the monster who had murdered her brother, she made 
a vow to bestow her hand on whomsoever would avenge her 
cause upon the bishop, who had been the origin of her misfor- 
tunes. A young man named Thorvard, the son of Lopter the 
rich, of Madrevalle in the canton of Eyanordur, undertook to do 
the justice she required. In the following year he made a jour- 
ney to Skalholt accompanied by some armed men, and arrived 
on the evening of St. Thorlak's day. As soon as the mass had 
begun he entered the church, seized the bishop who was at the 
altar, and conveyed him to the river Brueraa, where a stone 
being fixed to his neck he was thrown in and drowned. Ml the 
servants of the bishop to the number of thirty were massacred 
in the cathedral. The kings of the house of Aldenburg endea- 
voured to check these alarming outrages, and Christian I., in par- 
ticular, forbade under the severest penalties any hostile incursion, 
attack, homicide or robbery. 

In the year 1477* the governor Biorn Thorlevsen was killed 
near the glacier of Westerjcekkel by some English who came to 
trade there, because his wife Olor had made her domestics 
search for and kill all the English they could find in that neigh- 
bourhood. 

The Governor Didrich Pinning prescribed in 1400 certain 
rules to be adopted by the German, English, and Icelandic mer- 
chants, according to which they were to transact their business. 
The shocking plague which was four years afterwards commu- 
nicated to the southern quarter by a foreign vessel made dreadful 
havock amongst the inhabitants. The Icelanders it appears 
have always been discontented with the commerce of the English. 
In 1515 they made vehement complaints to the king; but the 
English continued to visit Iceland for a long time afterwards. 

OF THE REFORMATION. 

The Reformation began in the southern quarter, as it was here 
that the christian religion was accepted at the Althing or gene- 
ral court of justice. We have said that it was bishop Gissur who 
Urst organized the bishoprick of Skalkolt and its revenues; and 
it is remarkable, that a bishop of the same name began in 1540 
the reformation at Skalholt. He was a good, learned, and affec- 
tionate man, but he did not live long; his successor, whose 
name was Morten JEinersen, was affable and possessed much 
merit. He was the best spiritual poet of his time, as is proved 
by his canticles for the mass. 

The famous bishop Jon A resell thought to distinguish him- 
self by combating the reformation, though he did not dare to pub- 
lish his opinion on the subject rill the death of bishop Gissur. 
Aresen was not a man of learning, but was well gifted by nature j 



TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 



157 



be was of a lively and agreeable disposition and a good poet. In 
the troubles which he excited, he displayed more courage 
than judgment, and his vanity and irascible temper caused him 
to exhibit an inexcusable degree of turbulence. He imagined 
that his zeal for the faith would protect him ; but he was mis- 
taken. The end of this bishop, as well as other remarkable events 
that arose from the reformation in Iceland, are detailed in a work 
written on that subject by bishop Harboe. 

Oluf Kialtesen vvas afterwards bishop of Holun: he began 
the reformation in the northern bishopric, and received the as- 
sistance of several distinguished characters, particularly of the 
governor Paul Stigsen, who enacted many useful laws for ex- 
tending the religion, and regenerating public instruction to the 
advantage of the country in general. 

Oddur, son of bishop Gottishul of Holun, a pious well-in- 
formed man contributed in no small degree to the reformation, 
by his translation of the New Testament into good Icelandic. 
Not being upon good terms with bishop Agmund, with whom he 
came into Iceland, he dared not shew him his translation, or 
even entrust him with the project; but to Gissur and Gisle, who 
were afterwards bishops, he communicated his intention, and 
they assisted him in its execution: it is a met that under some 
whimsical influence or pretext, he took up his residence in a cow- 
stable, in which he translated the gospel of St. Matthew. 

Bishop Gudbrand, whom we have before mentioned, rendered 
the greatest service to his country, by establishing a printing- 
office, and translating the Bible and other religious books: his 
whole time, in fact, was employed in this manner. The figures 
and capital letters in the first edition of the Icelandic Bible are 
by him; he cut the matrices and cast the types with his own 
hand. 

The bishop of Skalholt Brynjolf Svendsen was the person, 
who after the reformation, restored order among the ecclesiastics, 
as well with regard to the administration of justice as to other 
important objects. He was a very wise and learned man, who 
was always arduous for the prosperity of his country, and gave 
incessant proofs of those virtues by his manner of living. 

conclusion. 

Having now recorded every thing worthy of notice, we shall 
bring our work to a conclusion. We have omitted a number of 
excursions and accidents which happened to us during different 
journies, as well as accounts of such enterprises and experiments 
as were not attended with success. On the other hand we have 
inserted whatever we conceived would be useful and important ; 
and we have no doubt that our efforts will meet with the appro- 



158 



OLAFSEN AND POVELSEN's TRAVELS, Sec. 



baticn of ilie judicious and learned reader; but particularly of 
such of our countrymen as reside in Iceland, or have any con- 
nection with that part of the Danish dominions, which has 
hitherto been so imperfectly known. 



The Editor of this work, on concluding his translation of the 
Travels in Iceland, feels it necessary to offer a few observations: 
It will be perceived by those who possess the original volumes, or 
any of the editions which have been published in the different 
continental languages, that the present translation has undergone 
a considerable reduction in point of quantity. But it will rea- 
dily be discovered, that the work of Messrs. Glafsen and Povel- 
sen is so local in its nature, and contains so many uninter- 
esting details, that a literal translation of it in English, would 
be an ungracious tax upon the purchaser. The Editor has 
therefore performed the laborious duty of extracting from the 
original work, all such passages as he trusts will be considered to 
possess a general interest; of connecting them in such a way that 
no inconsistency will be apparent, and of excluding a variety of 
matter, so minute and unimportant, that he is convinced no satis- 
faction whatever could be derived from its perusal : — the trans- 
lation however, in its present state, will not only deserve the at- 
tention of the general reader, but of the man of science; 
inasmuch as it contains every incident from which the philo- 
sopher or the naturalist can be supposed to derive gratification. 

As the authors frequently mention the remarks which they 
made in different parts of the island upwards of half a century 
ago, particularly at the time of the eruption of the Katlegiaa, 
it might be supposed that their travels are of a very old date; 
the contrary however is the case, for though in their work, they 
have evidently included the observations which occurred to them 
at various periods of their lives, yet some of their information 
is brought down to a very late epoch, and it was not till the year 
1802 that their production first obtained publicity. 

* F. W. B, 



THE END. 



INDEX 

TO 

OLJFSEN POVELSEmTUAVELSiii ICELAN&, 



AIR, pestiferous effects of in 
the southern parts of Ice- 
laud - - - 150 
Althing, the general court of jus- 
tice, described - - 152 
Antiquity, some vestiges of, de- 
scribed - - 153 
Arms, antique, description of 

some - - - - 154 
Atmosphere, remarks on some 

phenomena in the - 88 

Aurora borealis, observations re- 
lative to the - - 144 
£aard, account of the cavern of 38 
Bellowing hill, see HverevaUe 
Bessastadr, account of the royal 

house so called - - 153 

Birds, curious anecdotes of, 113,115 
iBlood in the sea, remarks on this 

singular phenomena - 128,156 
iBorgarfiord, the western quarter 
of Iceland, arrival at, 39 — gla- 
ciers, ib. — journey to theGuit- 
land, 40 — thermal springs, 50 
■ — plants and shrubs, 51 — ^.ma- 
nagement of their cattle by the 
inhabitants, 45 — journey to the 
mountains, 56 — foxes, 57-niice 
58 — swans, 59 — gulls and other 
birds, 60, 62— fish, ^.-—re- 
marks on the inhabitants, their 
occupations, manner of living, 
&c. 77 — amusements, 80 — * 
quadrupeds, ib. 
Buckler, remarks on that fish 

manner of fixing its spawn, &c. 1 48 
Butter, sour, manner of preserv- 
ing it in Iceland 15 
Butter-milk used as the ordinary 
drink in Kiosar - - 17 

C 

Calendar, account of it as adopt- 
ed in Iceland 21 

Christianity, when first intro- 
duced in Iceland - 38,156 

Church of Hitardal, account of 
some antiquities found there 71 



Commerce of Iceland, its his- 
tory in modern and in ancient 
times - - - 145 

D 

Dale, remarks on the inhabitants 
of, their character, manners, 
Sec. - - - 92 

Dramond, Iceland, see Rock- 
crystal. 

Dolphins, various circumstances 
relating to them - - 82 

Drangar, dangerous aseentof that 
glacier described - - 101 

E 

Earthquake, terrific account of an,l23 

Ebony, see Wood, petrified. 

Eric the red, remarks on the his- 
t®ryof, - - 117 

is asserted to have formed 

the first establishment in Green- 
land - - - ib. 

Establishments, account of some 
modern, in Iceland - 152 

F 

Fire, subterraneous of Rongar- 
hraun, account of the - 83 

subterraneous,their effects at 

Reykiavik - - 149 

Fish steeped or macerated, singu- 
lar manner of preserving it - 16 

peculiar manner of preparing 

it - 81 

— ~ — account of the principal 
sorts - - 82 

Fisheries, description of them in 
the country of Weterjagkkel 80 

Fishing-boats, description of those 
used at Kialarnes - -35 

Forges, remarks on the forges in 
the Myrar - 70 

Foxes, manner of hunting them 
in Borgarfiord - 57 

singular instance of their 

cunning, 81 — remarks on their 
surprising sagacity ar^d cunning, 



100 



INDEX. 



470 — devastations committed 
by them } 108. 

G 

©ames, account of the different 
kinds practised in Iceland - 26 

Gotland, journey to the glacier 
of, 40 — general opinion of the 
inhabitants respecting it, 41 — 
View from the summit,43— strik- 
ing rampart of stones on its 
borders, 47. 

©eldingafell, see Schneefi&ldjoekel. 

Geyser, singular phenomenon re- 
specting this boiling spring, 140, 
142 — its nature and quality, 
sources, &c._ 142 — the heat si- 
milar to that of the other hot 
springs, 143. 

Glaciers, ravages occasioned by 
their disruptions in Iceland - 6 

enquiry into the nature of 

the formation of new ones, 39 — 
hypothesis respecting their ori- 
gin, 45, 47, 102. 

farther description of, 39, 72, 

103 

Greenland, different opinions re- 
specting its first population - 117 

Gulls, depredations committed by 
them - - 6i 

H 

Haguen the Old, remarks on the 
history of that king - - 25 

Hay, manner of making it in Ice- 
land, price, quality, &c. de- 
scribed - - -18 

Hecla, journey to that mountain, 
136 — its size, ^.—description 
of its vicinity, 137 — remarks on 
"volcanic matter ejected, and the 
snow covering the surface of 
the mount, 138— arrival at the 
summit, 138 — eruptions, ib. 

History, the reading of noble pas- 
time pursued by the Icelanders 25 

Hivalvatn, tradition concerning 
the lake of, - - 37 

Horse-tail, the pernicious effects 
of, to cattle - , - H 

Hraun, observations on the na- 
ture of that mineral - 10 

H'v'erevalle, description of the fa- 
mous hill so called - - 121 

Hurricanes, their violence near 
Jteykefiord - - 100 

I 

I§e + the pasagje Qf masses from 



the coast of Greenland de-* 
scribed, 104 — opinions respect- 
ing it, 106. 
Iceland, general remarks on the 
northern quarter of, 119-earth- 
quake described, 123 — fertility 
of that quarter, 124 — volcanoes, 
126. 

observations on the east- 
ern quarter of, 129— the princi- 
pal mountains, ib. 

the southern quarter of, 

described - - 136 

Icelanders, remarks on their na- 
tural industry, 21— their man- 
ner of computing time, ib. — 
their games and amusements, 
24 — noble pastime pursued by 
them, 25 — language, 26 — their 
management of cattle, 54 — in- 
teresting remarks on them, 83, 
92 — subject to the influence of 
superstition in ancient and in 
modern times, .93 — instances of 
their superstition, 15 1 -first con- 
verted to Christianity - 1 52 

remarks on their manner 

of living, their propensity to 
luxury - . - 13 

Idols, remarks on the form and 
temple of the, in Reykholzdal 72 

Inns, description of the ancient, 
particularly in the Sfiee-fuelds 
fclaes - - - 84 

Inscriptions, ancient, very scarce 
in Iceland - - 7 \ 

Insects, see Kiosar. 

information relative tothe 

different species of in Iceland Hi 

K 

Katlegiaa, awful eruption of, 129, 
134 — the glacier described, 13-* 
— streams changed into great 
rivers, 135. 

Kiosar, geographical situation of 
the district of, 5— division of 
the inhabited part of, 6— air 
and temperature, heat and cold. 
7— heat of this climate, weight 
of the air and meteors, 8 — de- 
scription of the phenomenon 
called mistaur, ib. — different 
kind of soils, 9 — account of the 
turf found in this district, id. 

general remarks on the 

stones found in this district, 9- 
—fertility of the soil, 10 — • 
agricultural laws in, ib. — enu- 
meration of plants, 11* — re- 



INDEX. 



161 



HMfks on the inhabitants, pre- 
vailing diseases, their houses, 
inclosures, &c. 12— their man- 
ner of living, 23, 15 — their be- 
verage, labours, and habitual 
employments of the peasantry, 
17 — account of their hay har- 
vest, 18 — regulations respect- 
ing the labour, 19 — manner of 
forming and using saddles and 
pannels, and dislike to travel- 
ling, 23 — of their horses and 
mode of conveying goods, 27 
their horned cattle, ib„ — sheep, 
28 — goats, 29 — hogs,i6.. — aqua- 
tic horse, ib. — dogs, 30 — cats, 
ib. — foxes and depredations 
comm itted by them, ib. — mice, 
31 — sea dogs, ib. — falcons, 32 
ravens, ib. — wild fowl, 34 — fish, 
35 — insects, 36 — forests, ib. — 
details relative to the inhabi- 
tants of this district, 37. 
Krabla, particulars relative to the 
burning mountain so called 126 



Labour, manner of regulating it, 
remarks on the laws for this pur- 
pose 20 

Lakes, fresh, account of the most 
remarkable in the northern 
quarter of Iceland - - 120 

Lansquenit, description of that 
curious game - - 26 

Lava, description of it around the 
Krabla - 127 

Leather, peculiar manner of ma- 
nufacturing it in Icela nd - 7 

Lichen Islandicus, its preparation 
and medicinal qualities describ- 
ed 50 

M 

Magic, the prevalence of in Ice- 
land - - 94, 98 

Marmenill, remarks on the pro- 
bable or improbable existence 
of this animal - - 111 

Meteor, a remarkable one de- 
scribed - - - 129 

Meteor, see Kiosar. 

Mice, singular instinct of - 58 

Milk, its use as a regaling beve- 
rage 17 

Mistaur, see Kiosar. 

Monster, description of a, of the 
fish kind - - 125 

Monstriiisksg, Tborolf. interest- 
ing account of - - 83 

Mor, see Turf. 
OLAFSEN.] 



Mountains, remarks on their na- 
ture in Iceland - 6 

dangers from their frequent 

disruption in Iceland 5, 119 

account of some remark- 
able ones, their height, &c. 39,42, 56 

Mountain-fowl, singular method 
of catching - - 124i 

Museus catharticus, see Lichen 
Islandicus. 

Myvatn, the largest lake in Ice- 
land - - - 121 

N 

Nikou, strictures on the probable 
existence of the - - SB 

O 

Observations, general, relative to ' 
remarkable circumstances - 158 

Olafsen, M. the departure of 
with M. Povelsen from Co- 
penhagen, on their travels in 
Iceland - - $ 

Oxehver, remarkable circum- 
stance attending this spring - 122 

Ox-spring, see Oxehver. 



Peasantry, their labours and habi- 
tual occupations described 17 

Pelican, details relative to the 
methods of hunting them - €9 

Peterell, the importance of that 
bird to the Icelanders - 119 

Phenomenon, description of a sin- 
gular - - - 150 

Plants in the western part of Ice- 
land 91 

Povelsen, M. the departure of 
with M. Olafsen from Copen- 
hagen on their travels in Ice- 
land - 5 

Printing first introduced into Ice- 
land - 12S 

Pumice stone, singular rampart 
formed by - 47 

Pyramids, observations relative 
to some remarkable - 45 

R 

Ravens, account of their depre- 
dations, 32 — -superstitious opi- 
nion of the people respecting 
them - - - 33 

Reformation, time of its com- 
mencement in Iceland - 155 

Revenge, the spirit of, earned to 
a great extent by the Iceland- 
ers - - 155 

Reykiances, the promontory of 



INDEX 



particularly exposed to subter- 
raneous fires, violence of one 
eruption at - - 140 

Bivers, account of the principal 
in the ncrtnern quarter - 120 

Roek-crystal, description of a 
species of - 77 

Hocks, conjectures respecting the 
extraordinary appearance of 
some - - - 117 

s 

Saddles, see Kicsar, 

Saga, signification of that word 25 

Sailors, English, hazardous un- 
dertaking of two - - 73 

Salmon, method of fishing for, de- 
scribed - - - 62 

Sarcophagus, curious anecdote re- 
lative to one - 153 

Schneenssldjcekel, description of 
the glacier of - - 72j76 

Schneeficeldstraud, see Drangue. 

Sea-dog, see ' Seal. 

Sea-man, see Marmenill. 

Seal,, important advantages de- 
rived from the, 108 — natural 
Justory and superstitious ideas 
of the people concerning this 
animal - - - - 109 

ShavkSy particulars relative to 
the natural history of - 147 

Sheep, see Kiotar. 

Shell-rish, singular account of 35 

Skalholt, remarks on the bishop- 
ric of 156 

Skidestead, destroyed by the dis- 
ruption of a mountain - - 119 

Skins, curious method of prepar- 
ing them in Iceland - - 79 

Snorro-Godi, instance of his in- 
genuity - - - 153 

Sourther, description of the ca- 
vern of, examination of its inte- 
rior, &c 63, 70 — its dimen- 
sions, 69. 



> & 

Springs, mineral, in Iceland, re- 
marks on them in the diocese 
MosfeltSweit - - 7 

farther account of them 

and their influence on the air 

in winter - 48, 50, 77, 87". 

Springs, hot and boiling, in the 
district of the Hunavatn, ac- 
count of the - - - 12i 

Superstition, singular instance of 85 

Swans, manner of catching them 59 



Time, the division described 21 
Torf, see Turf. 

Travelling, manner of performing 

it in Iceland 
Turf, accouut of it as it is found 

in Kiosar 
• considered as a proof of 



the former existence of forests 37 
V 

Vandlose Strand, short account 
of the part so called - 14$ 

Vapour-baths, manner of con- 
structing them - 126 

Videy, remarks on the isle of - 153 

W 

Weather, phenomena relative to 
the 87 

Westfiord, account of some dif- 
ferent voyages in the - 86 

Whale, remarks on different spe- 
cies of the - - - 112 

Whale-hunting, description of it 
in the western parts - 99- 

Winds, remarks on such as are 
pernicious in spring - ib» 

Wood petrified, remarks on some 
found in Iceland 89 

,mode of floating wood proved 

to be disadvantageous - 102 

Wrestling, peculiar maneer of 25 



Directions to the Binder for placing the Plates* 

1. The Map of Iceland to face the Title. 
£. An Icelander's House to face p. 18. 

3. Figures representing the Costume of .celand amongst dif- 
ferent ranks to face p. 20. 

4. Mount Hecla to face p. 139. 

5. The Geyser,, a boiling spring in Iceland, to face p. 140, 



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